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abstract read)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/e/transducer/vibration-elastocaloric-cooler"},{"id":"transducer:bending-elastocaloric-air-cooler","type":"transducer","name":"Bending-actuated NiTi elastocaloric air cooler","aliases":["low-force bending elastocaloric cooler"],"summary":"Bent NiTi sheets driven through their transformation at 5.64 N g⁻¹ cool an air stream by 5.5 K with 0.137 W g⁻¹ specific cooling power; the driver is an actuator's stress, not ambient vibration (Li, Cheng and Sun 2022).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 20 (the last two candidate compositions audited as physics; abstract read)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/e/transducer/bending-elastocaloric-air-cooler"},{"id":"transducer:thermal-osmosis-electrokinetic-generator","type":"transducer","name":"Thermal-osmosis electrokinetic generator (MD-EPG)","aliases":["MD-EPG","membrane distiller + electrokinetic power generator","TOEC electrokinetic module"],"summary":"Two-stage laboratory converter coupling a thermal-osmosis (membrane-distillation) module, whose pressurised cold-side water is the working stream, to a pressure-driven electrokinetic microchannel generator (Huang et al. 2021; Luo et al. 2023, 1.12 W m⁻² at ΔT = 50 °C).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K5","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 21 (TOEC route search; abstracts read)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/e/transducer/thermal-osmosis-electrokinetic-generator"},{"id":"transducer:permeate-gap-thermo-osmotic-generator","type":"transducer","name":"Permeate-gap thermo-osmotic generator (PGTO)","aliases":["PGTO system","permeate gap thermo-osmotic system","pump-free thermo-osmotic generator"],"summary":"A permeate-gap membrane-distillation module pressurises its own permeate into an elevated tank; the released stream drives a small hydro-turbine generator (Xiao et al. 2024, 32 cm², a 2 W-rated bulb lit at about 1.5 m head). Gravitational storage sits between the thermo-osmotic flow and the turbine, so it is a longer-chain relative of the TOEC composition.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K5","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 21 (TOEC route search; source read in full)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/e/transducer/permeate-gap-thermo-osmotic-generator"},{"id":"transducer:micro-thermophotovoltaic-generator","type":"transducer","name":"Combustion-driven micro-thermophotovoltaic generator (μTPV)","aliases":["μTPV generator","microcombustor TPV","combustion TPV","micro-TPV"],"summary":"A propane microcombustor heats a photonic-crystal selective emitter whose thermal radiation falls on low-bandgap GaInAsSb photovoltaic cells (Chan et al. 2013: 344 mW over 1 cm², 2.5 % of 13.7 W thermal input).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 22 (Scholar runs, the parallel-driver rule and the head rule; abstract read)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/e/transducer/micro-thermophotovoltaic-generator"},{"id":"transducer:radioluminescent-nuclear-battery","type":"transducer","name":"Radioluminescent (beta-photovoltaic) nuclear battery","aliases":["β-PV nuclear battery","radiophotovoltaic battery","scintillator–photovoltaic nuclear battery","RL nuclear battery"],"summary":"A β⁻ emitter (⁶³Ni) excites a phosphor (ZnS:Cu,Al) whose radioluminescence is converted by a spectrally matched InGaP photovoltaic cell (Russo et al. 2017: 3.35 nW cm⁻², 0.289 % total conversion efficiency in the volumetric configuration).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 22 (Scholar runs, the parallel-driver rule and the head rule; abstract read)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/e/transducer/radioluminescent-nuclear-battery"},{"id":"transducer:evaporation-driven-generator","type":"transducer","name":"Evaporation-driven oscillator generator","aliases":["HYDRA generator","evaporation-driven electricity generator","spore-muscle generator"],"summary":"Hygroscopy-driven artificial muscles (bacterial spores on tape) form a shutter-controlled relaxation oscillator above evaporating water; its piston-like motion turns an electromagnetic generator (Chen et al. 2015: LEDs lit, 60 μW bursts and 1.8 μW average into 100 kΩ).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 23 (triage of the released candidates; source read in full)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/e/transducer/evaporation-driven-generator"},{"id":"transducer:waterwheel-generator","type":"transducer","name":"Waterwheel generator (pico hydro)","aliases":["pico-hydro waterwheel","undershot wheel generator","stream wheel generator"],"summary":"An undershot or overshot waterwheel in an open channel driving an electrical generator directly (Asim et al. 2022: a 3 kW generator at full load on a 1.54 kW appliance load).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K7","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 23 (triage of the released candidates; Asim 2022 read on the publisher's page)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/e/transducer/waterwheel-generator"},{"id":"transducer:thermoacoustic-piezoelectric-harvester","type":"transducer","name":"Thermoacoustic piezoelectric harvester","aliases":["thermoacoustic nanofibre generator","PAN thermoacoustic harvester"],"summary":"A thermally stabilised piezoelectric nanofibre membrane placed in a thermoacoustic engine's sound field converts the wave into electricity at up to 450 °C (Zheng et al. 2022: 102 V and 10 μA peak from a 3 × 3 cm² device on the engine, 30 LEDs lit, a battery charged).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 25 (abstract read; a known device of the piezoelectric family, not the acoustoelectric route)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/e/transducer/thermoacoustic-piezoelectric-harvester"},{"id":"transducer:thermoacoustic-triboelectric-harvester","type":"transducer","name":"Thermoacoustic triboelectric harvester","aliases":["thermoacoustic TENG","TAE-TENG"],"summary":"A piston-assisted thermoacoustic engine actuates a contact-separation triboelectric nanogenerator (Li et al. 2026: 0.49 mW peak at 80 MΩ with heating around 150 °C; a wireless sensor powered).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 27 (abstract read; the second reader's spelling)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/e/transducer/thermoacoustic-triboelectric-harvester"},{"id":"transducer:regenerative-elastocaloric-heat-pump","type":"transducer","name":"Regenerative elastocaloric heat pump","aliases":["active elastocaloric regenerator","elastocaloric heat pump"],"summary":"Superelastic NiTi plates cycled through their transformation in an active regenerator pump heat up a water-side temperature span of 15.3 K with specific heating power up to 800 W kg⁻¹ and COP up to 7 (Tušek et al. 2016).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K7","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 31 (abstract read on the publisher's page)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/e/transducer/regenerative-elastocaloric-heat-pump"},{"id":"transducer:gas-turbine-generator","type":"transducer","name":"Gas-turbine generator","aliases":["gas turbine plant","open-cycle gas turbine","simple-cycle gas turbine","combustion turbine"],"summary":"Compressor, combustor and turbine on one shaft driving an alternator; the hot combustion gas expands through the turbine (Brayton cycle). Open cycle on its own; the topping member of a combined cycle when its exhaust raises steam.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 34 (the second reader's finding 22; Dixon & Hall 2014, Al Mhanna 2024)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/e/transducer/gas-turbine-generator"},{"id":"transducer:boiling-water-reactor-plant","type":"transducer","name":"Boiling-water reactor plant","aliases":["BWR","boiling water reactor","direct-cycle reactor plant"],"summary":"A light-water reactor whose coolant boils in the reactor vessel: the steam–water mixture leaves the core, passes two stages of moisture separation and goes by steamline to the main turbine-generator; the exhaust is condensed and pumped back to the vessel. The same circuit is reactor coolant and turbine working fluid — the defining distinction from a pressurised-water reactor, whose steam generator makes a separate secondary steam.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 38 (the second reader's spelling; the NRC's BWR description read in full)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/e/transducer/boiling-water-reactor-plant"},{"id":"transducer:pwr-steam-generator","type":"transducer","name":"PWR steam generator","aliases":["steam generator","primary-to-secondary heat exchanger"],"summary":"A heat exchanger whose tubes separate pressurised primary reactor coolant from secondary water while transferring heat that boils the secondary water into turbine steam; the primary coolant never crosses into the secondary circuit.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 40 (the second reader's finding 32; the NRC's PWR description read in full)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/e/transducer/pwr-steam-generator"},{"id":"constraint:planck-visible-band-fraction","type":"constraint","name":"Visible-band fraction of thermal emission","aliases":[],"summary":"An incandescent source cannot put more of its radiated power into visible light than the Planck spectrum at its temperature contains there; the ceiling rises with temperature towards the ≈ 6600 K blackbody optimum and is a few per cent at filament temperatures. The band integral has no closed form, so the check records the bound as not evaluable until a band-fraction table or series is curated; a datum compared with it must state the emitter temperature.","bound":"η_vis ≤ ∫₃₈₀ⁿᵐ⁷⁸⁰ⁿᵐ B_λ(λ, T) dλ / σT⁴ — the share of a thermal emitter's radiated power that Planck's distribution places in the visible band at the emitter temperature","constraint_kind":"formula-bound","metric":"conversion-efficiency","formula_inputs":["T_emitter_K"],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":["output:light"],"applies_to_phenomena":["phenomenon:thermal-emission"],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 42 (theoretical_limit retired into the typed constraint graph; Bejan 2016's thermal-radiation treatment cited for Planck's distribution)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/e/constraint/planck-visible-band-fraction"},{"id":"constraint:gibbs-enthalpy-ratio-bound","type":"constraint","name":"Reversible electrochemical efficiency (ΔG/ΔH)","aliases":[],"summary":"An electrochemical converter operating reversibly delivers the Gibbs free-energy change of its reaction as electrical work, so its efficiency on the reaction enthalpy cannot exceed ΔG/ΔH — 83 % for hydrogen and oxygen at standard conditions with liquid water as the product. A ratio of the reaction's own thermochemistry, not of temperatures: for the direct oxidation of carbon ΔG exceeds ΔH and the ratio passes 100 %. Evaluated only against an efficiency datum that records both ΔG and ΔH of its reaction on the same basis.","bound":"η ≤ ΔG/ΔH of the cell reaction; 237.1/285.8 = 0.83 for H₂ + ½O₂ → H₂O(l) at 25 °C, 1 atm (higher-heating-value basis)","constraint_kind":"formula-bound","metric":"conversion-efficiency","formula":"delta_G_kJ_per_mol / delta_H_kJ_per_mol","formula_inputs":["delta_G_kJ_per_mol","delta_H_kJ_per_mol"],"reference_value":0.83,"reference_regime":"H₂ + ½O₂ → H₂O(l), 25 °C, 1 atm: ΔG 237.1 kJ/mol, ΔH 285.8 kJ/mol","applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":["output:electricity"],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 42 (DOE Fuel Cell Handbook, 7th ed., equations 2-14 to 2-17 read)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/e/constraint/gibbs-enthalpy-ratio-bound"},{"id":"constraint:photosynthesis-glucose-free-energy-limit","type":"constraint","name":"Photosynthetic glucose-production limit","aliases":[],"summary":"Blankenship et al. 2011 calculate a theoretical limit of about 12 % for the free-energy efficiency of photosynthetic glucose production from CO₂ and water by considering the chlorophyll band-edge absorption and the two-photosystem structure of oxygenic photosynthesis, whose two photosystems compete for the same regions of the solar spectrum. Compared only with a datum that states the same basis.","bound":"η ≤ ≈ 12 % of incident solar energy stored as glucose free energy, for oxygenic photosynthesis from CO₂ and water under the chlorophyll band-edge and two-photosystem assumptions","constraint_kind":"upper-bound","metric":"conversion-efficiency","formula_inputs":[],"max_efficiency":0.12,"requires_basis":"oxygenic photosynthesis, glucose from CO₂ and water, free-energy basis, full solar spectrum","applies_to_sources":["disequilibrium:radiation-flux"],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":["phenomenon:photosynthesis"],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 42 (Blankenship et al. 2011 read in full in pass 39; typed here)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/e/constraint/photosynthesis-glucose-free-energy-limit"},{"id":"constraint:photosynthesis-physiological-maximum","type":"constraint","name":"Physiology-limited photosynthetic maximum","aliases":[],"summary":"The maximum a plant can reach once the known physiological losses are subtracted from the ≈ 12 % free-energy limit — a benchmark for crops, never a ceiling on the phenomenon, so it is listed on a route and never decides it.","bound":"≈ 4.6 % (C3) and 6.0 % (C4) of incident solar energy after the known losses in light harvesting, overpotentials and respiration","constraint_kind":"benchmark","metric":"conversion-efficiency","formula_inputs":[],"reference_value":0.06,"reference_regime":"C4 plants; 4.6 % for C3 plants (Zhu, Long & Ort 2010, as cited by Blankenship et al. 2011)","applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":["phenomenon:photosynthesis"],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 42 (typed from Blankenship et al. 2011's attribution to Zhu, Long & Ort 2010)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/e/constraint/photosynthesis-physiological-maximum"},{"id":"constraint:pec-water-splitting-single-junction-ideal-limit","type":"constraint","name":"PEC water-splitting ideal limit, single junction","aliases":[],"summary":"Fountaine, Lewerenz & Atwater's ideal-case limit for photoelectrochemical water splitting with one absorber: complete above-gap absorption, detailed-balance dark current with only radiative recombination, ideality 1, negligible catalytic overpotentials, no series resistance, E_rxn = 1.23 V, unity Faradaic efficiency, AM1.5G. A bound on water splitting, not on every manifestation of the photoelectrochemical effect: a datum is compared only when it states this basis.","bound":"η_STH ≤ 30.6 % for a single-junction photoelectrochemical water-splitting device under AM1.5G in the ideal case (E_g 1.59 eV at the maximum)","constraint_kind":"upper-bound","metric":"conversion-efficiency","formula_inputs":[],"max_efficiency":0.306,"requires_basis":"PEC water splitting, single-junction absorber, AM1.5G","applies_to_sources":["disequilibrium:radiation-flux"],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":["phenomenon:photoelectrochemical-effect"],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 46 (Fountaine 2016 read in full)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/e/constraint/pec-water-splitting-single-junction-ideal-limit"},{"id":"constraint:pec-water-splitting-dual-junction-ideal-limit","type":"constraint","name":"PEC water-splitting ideal limit, dual junction","aliases":[],"summary":"The same ideal assumptions as the single-junction limit, for two absorbers in series: the global maximum over all gap pairs. A particular gap pair has a lower ceiling of its own (Cheng 2018's 1.78 / 1.26 eV tandem: 22.8 %), which lives on that architecture's pathway, never here.","bound":"η_STH ≤ 40.0 % for a dual-junction photoelectrochemical water-splitting device under AM1.5G in the ideal case (E_g 0.52 / 1.40 eV at the maximum); a third junction adds nothing (the ideal triple-junction maximum is 28.3 %)","constraint_kind":"upper-bound","metric":"conversion-efficiency","formula_inputs":[],"max_efficiency":0.4,"requires_basis":"PEC water splitting, dual-junction absorber, AM1.5G","applies_to_sources":["disequilibrium:radiation-flux"],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":["phenomenon:photoelectrochemical-effect"],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 46 (Fountaine 2016 read in full)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/e/constraint/pec-water-splitting-dual-junction-ideal-limit"},{"id":"constraint:pec-water-splitting-realistic-high-performance","type":"constraint","name":"PEC water-splitting realistic limiting efficiency, high-performance materials (Fountaine Real1)","aliases":[],"summary":"The maxima of a parameterised model case — Fountaine, Lewerenz & Atwater's 'realistic limiting efficiencies' for high-performance materials — a benchmark listed on a route, never a bound that decides it; the parameter bundle is the record, not the four numbers alone.","bound":"η_max 15.1 % single junction (E_g 2.05 eV) and 28.3 % dual junction (1.59 / 0.92 eV) for absorption fraction 0.9, external radiative efficiency 0.03, catalytic exchange current densities {1, 10⁻³} mA cm⁻² (cathodic, anodic), series resistance 0, shunt resistance infinite","constraint_kind":"benchmark","metric":"conversion-efficiency","formula_inputs":[],"reference_value":0.283,"reference_regime":"dual junction, 1.59 / 0.92 eV, the Real1 parameter bundle of Table 1; 15.1 % for the single junction at 2.05 eV","applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":["phenomenon:photoelectrochemical-effect"],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 46 (Fountaine 2016 read in full; Table 1)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/e/constraint/pec-water-splitting-realistic-high-performance"},{"id":"constraint:pec-water-splitting-realistic-earth-abundant","type":"constraint","name":"PEC water-splitting realistic limiting efficiency, Earth-abundant materials (Fountaine Real2)","aliases":[],"summary":"The maxima of the Earth-abundant-materials model case of Fountaine, Lewerenz & Atwater — 'realistic limiting efficiencies', a benchmark listed on a route and never decisive.","bound":"η_max 5.4 % single junction (E_g 2.53 eV) and 16.2 % dual junction (1.93 / 1.38 eV) for absorption fraction 0.9, external radiative efficiency 10⁻⁶, catalytic exchange current densities {1, 10⁻⁵} mA cm⁻², normalised series resistivity 0.1 and shunt resistivity 10","constraint_kind":"benchmark","metric":"conversion-efficiency","formula_inputs":[],"reference_value":0.162,"reference_regime":"dual junction, 1.93 / 1.38 eV, the Real2 parameter bundle of Table 1; 5.4 % for the single junction at 2.53 eV","applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":["phenomenon:photoelectrochemical-effect"],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 46 (Fountaine 2016 read in full; Table 1)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/e/constraint/pec-water-splitting-realistic-earth-abundant"},{"id":"constraint:pec-tandem-gainp-gainas-1p78-1p26ev-limit","type":"constraint","name":"Theoretical STH limit for the GaInP/GaInAs 1.78 / 1.26 eV tandem (Cheng 2018)","aliases":[],"summary":"The theoretical efficiency for one gap combination, reached by two assumption bundles that are not the same model: Cheng et al. 2018's SQwater calculation (100 % above-gap absorption, 100 % external radiative efficiency, finite catalytic exchange current densities {1, 10⁻³} mA cm⁻², R_S = 0, R_SH = ∞) gives 22.8 %, and Fountaine, Lewerenz & Atwater 2016's Ideal case (j0,cat → ∞ among its nine ideal assumptions) independently gives 22.8 % for the May et al. 1.26 / 1.78 eV combination, with 20.5 % under its Real1 bundle. Cheng et al. report their device at 0.85 of it (19.3 / 22.8). An architecture-specific bound: recorded only in the exact tandem pathway's bounds, never on the generic photoelectrochemical route, whose ceiling is the global dual-junction maximum (pass 46 close: each source's assumptions stay its own).","bound":"η_STH ≤ 22.8 % for the 1.78 eV / 1.26 eV GaInP/GaInAs dual-junction photocathode under AM1.5G, assuming 100 % above-bandgap absorption and 100 % external radiative efficiency (catalytic exchange current densities {1, 10⁻³} mA cm⁻², R_S = 0, R_SH = ∞)","constraint_kind":"upper-bound","metric":"conversion-efficiency","formula_inputs":[],"max_efficiency":0.228,"requires_basis":"PEC water splitting, dual-junction absorber, AM1.5G","applies_to_sources":["disequilibrium:radiation-flux"],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":["phenomenon:photoelectrochemical-effect"],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 46 (Cheng 2018 full text read on arXiv 1706.01493)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/e/constraint/pec-tandem-gainp-gainas-1p78-1p26ev-limit"},{"id":"phenomenon:radiation-pressure","type":"phenomenon","name":"Radiation pressure","aliases":["photon momentum transfer","light pressure","solar sail thrust"],"domain":"optics-photonics","summary":"Electromagnetic radiation carries momentum; absorbing or reflecting it exerts a force on matter (2I/c for a perfect mirror at normal incidence), which can do mechanical work — the principle of the solar sail.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1901,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/radiation-pressure"},{"id":"phenomenon:dufour-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Dufour effect","aliases":["diffusion thermoeffect"],"domain":"thermodynamics","summary":"A concentration gradient in a liquid or gas mixture drives a heat flux, the Onsager-reciprocal partner of the Soret effect. A chemical disequilibrium becomes a thermal one.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1872,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 7 audit (ChatGPT review, applied and source-verified by the lane)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/dufour-effect"},{"id":"phenomenon:marangoni-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Marangoni effect","aliases":["surface-tension-gradient-driven flow","thermocapillary flow","solutocapillary flow","thermocapillary","solutocapillary","destillocapillarity","thermal Marangoni","thermal Marangoni effect"],"domain":"fluid-mechanics","summary":"A gradient of surface tension along a liquid interface exerts a tangential stress that drives bulk flow. Temperature or composition gradients along the surface are the usual causes.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-liquid"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1865,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/marangoni-effect"},{"id":"phenomenon:acoustoelectric-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Acoustoelectric effect","aliases":["acoustoelectric current","phonon drag by a travelling wave","acousto-electric effect","acoustoelectric voltage","acoustoelectric drag","Weinreich relation"],"domain":"condensed-matter","summary":"A travelling acoustic wave transfers momentum to mobile charge carriers in a semiconductor or metal, producing a direct current or voltage along the direction of propagation.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1957,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 7 audit (ChatGPT review, applied and source-verified by the lane)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/acoustoelectric-effect"},{"id":"phenomenon:photon-drag-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Photon drag effect","aliases":["optical drag current"],"domain":"optics-photonics","summary":"Absorbed or redirected photon momentum generates a longitudinal electrical response in a material; the magnitude and polarity depend on the carrier and interface physics and need not follow the naive free-electron momentum-transfer sign. A momentum-transfer effect, distinct from the photovoltaic effect.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","illumination-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1970,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 7 audit (ChatGPT review, applied and source-verified by the lane)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/photon-drag-effect"},{"id":"phenomenon:spin-nernst-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Spin Nernst effect","aliases":["thermal spin Hall effect"],"domain":"spin-systems","summary":"A longitudinal temperature gradient in a spin–orbit-coupled conductor generates a transverse pure spin current, the thermal analogue of the spin Hall effect.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","medium-conductor","temp-gradient-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":2017,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/spin-nernst-effect"},{"id":"phenomenon:photo-dember-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Photo-Dember effect","aliases":["photodiffusion voltage","surface photocurrent"],"domain":"optics-photonics","summary":"Non-uniform photoexcitation creates electron and hole concentration gradients; unequal carrier transport separates charge and sets up a Dember field. Under ultrafast pulsed excitation the transient current is widely used for terahertz emission; steady-state Dember photovoltages are derived in the same framework.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","medium-semiconductor","illumination-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1931,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 7 audit (ChatGPT review, applied and source-verified by the lane)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/photo-dember-effect"},{"id":"phenomenon:thermo-osmosis","type":"phenomenon","name":"Thermo-osmosis","aliases":["thermal osmosis","thermo-osmotic flow","thermoosmosis","thermo-osmotic","thermo-osmotic energy conversion","vapor pressure-driven osmosis","VPDO","pressure-retarded membrane distillation","PRMD"],"domain":"thermodynamics","summary":"A temperature difference across a membrane drives a net volume flow of solvent, distinct from the Soret effect, which separates species without net volume transport.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["medium-membrane","temp-gradient-required","state-liquid"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1907,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/thermo-osmosis"},{"id":"phenomenon:electrohydrodynamic-generation","type":"phenomenon","name":"Electrohydrodynamic generation","aliases":["EHD generator","electrogasdynamic generation","charged-fluid flow against a field"],"domain":"fluid-mechanics","summary":"Charge carried by a flowing dielectric fluid is transported against an electric field, converting the fluid's kinetic energy directly into electrical work at a collector.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["flow-required","field-electric-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1977,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/electrohydrodynamic-generation"},{"id":"phenomenon:ionic-thermoelectric-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Ionic thermoelectric effect","aliases":["ionic Seebeck effect","thermodiffusion of ions"],"domain":"electrochemistry","summary":"A temperature gradient drives differential thermodiffusion of cations and anions in an electrolyte, building an ionic space charge and a thermovoltage of millivolts per kelvin without any electrode redox entropy.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["temp-gradient-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":2011,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/ionic-thermoelectric-effect"},{"id":"phenomenon:thermomagnetic-ferrofluid-convection","type":"phenomenon","name":"Thermomagnetic convection","aliases":["ferrofluid convection","magnetocaloric pumping in ferrofluids","thermomagnetic pumping","thermomagnetic pump"],"domain":"fluid-mechanics","summary":"In a magnetic fluid whose magnetisation falls with temperature, a magnetic field gradient pulls cooler, more strongly magnetised fluid toward the field, driving convection without gravity or pumps.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-liquid","field-magnetic-required","temp-gradient-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1970,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/thermomagnetic-ferrofluid-convection"},{"id":"phenomenon:thermally-driven-shape-memory-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Thermal shape-memory effect","aliases":["shape-memory transformation","martensitic thermal actuation"],"domain":"condensed-matter","summary":"Heating a deformed shape-memory alloy through its martensite–austenite transformation recovers strain and exerts large stress; cycling between a hot and a cold reservoir gives cyclic mechanical motion (the reservoirs are needed for heat-engine operation, not for a single recovery event).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1951,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 7 audit (ChatGPT review, applied and source-verified by the lane)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/thermally-driven-shape-memory-effect"},{"id":"phenomenon:thermochemical-redox-cycle","type":"phenomenon","name":"Thermochemical redox cycle","aliases":["solar thermochemical water splitting","two-step metal-oxide cycle"],"domain":"chemistry","summary":"A metal oxide is reduced endothermically at high temperature and re-oxidised by water or carbon dioxide at a lower temperature, storing thermal exergy as hydrogen or carbon monoxide.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["temp-high"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1977,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/thermochemical-redox-cycle"},{"id":"phenomenon:alphavoltaic-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Alphavoltaic effect","aliases":[],"domain":"nuclear-physics","summary":"Alpha particles stopped in a semiconductor junction create dense tracks of electron–hole pairs that the junction separates; short range and heavy lattice damage distinguish it from the betavoltaic effect.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","medium-semiconductor","radioisotope-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1954,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/alphavoltaic-effect"},{"id":"phenomenon:radioluminescence","type":"phenomenon","name":"Radioluminescence","aliases":["scintillation","tritium light"],"domain":"nuclear-physics","summary":"Ionising decay radiation excites a scintillator or phosphor, which emits visible or ultraviolet photons; those photons can drive a photovoltaic cell in a two-stage nuclear battery.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","radioisotope-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1903,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 7 audit (ChatGPT review, applied and source-verified by the lane)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/radioluminescence"},{"id":"phenomenon:thermopolarization-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Thermopolarization effect","aliases":["thermopolarization","thermal polarization effect","proper thermopolarization","temperature-gradient-induced polarization"],"domain":"condensed-matter","summary":"Polarization induced by a spatial temperature gradient in an insulating or polar dielectric medium. In solids this includes the historical 'proper thermopolarization' response — the direct ∇T → P contribution after separating pyroelectric and thermomechanical / flexoelectric contributions; in polar molecular liquids the same macroscopic ∇T → polarization coupling appears through non-equilibrium molecular orientation and multipolar response (Bresme and co-workers, simulation only). Thermally induced flexoelectric or pyroelectric responses remain distinct causal mechanisms: thermopolarization names the measured ∇T-induced polarization, not a unique microscopic mechanism — Iwakiri et al. 2026 attribute their measured component to thermomechanical flexoelectricity because its magnitude scales with thermal expansion and a strain-gradient FEM reproduces the observations, while the historical 'proper' effect is the direct residual response distinguished from that tertiary / flexoelectric contribution.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["medium-dielectric","temp-gradient-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1969,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 32 (widened to polar liquids as one phenomenon with two claims: Bresme 2008 simulated, Armstrong 2015 and Gittus 2020 replicated in simulation; pass 28: Marvan 1969 predicted, Kholkin 1982 measured (read in full), Tagantsev 1987 defined, Onishi 2025 theorised; the second reader's spelling)"},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/thermopolarization-effect"},{"id":"phenomenon:seebeck-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Seebeck effect","aliases":["thermoelectric effect","thermo-EMF"],"domain":"condensed-matter","summary":"At open circuit, temperature-driven carrier transport along a conductor is balanced by an electric field, producing a measurable thermoelectric voltage between the ends (or across a junction of dissimilar conductors). Its polarity depends on the transport coefficients, the dominant carriers and the stated sign convention.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","medium-conductor","temp-gradient-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1821,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/seebeck-effect"},{"id":"phenomenon:peltier-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Peltier effect","aliases":[],"domain":"condensed-matter","summary":"A current through a junction of dissimilar conductors absorbs or releases heat at the junction, the reverse of the Seebeck effect. Basis of thermoelectric cooling.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","medium-conductor"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1834,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/peltier-effect"},{"id":"phenomenon:thomson-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Thomson effect","aliases":[],"domain":"condensed-matter","summary":"Reversible heating or cooling of a single conductor carrying a current along a temperature gradient. Links the Seebeck and Peltier coefficients through the Kelvin relations.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","medium-conductor"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1851,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/thomson-effect"},{"id":"phenomenon:thermionic-emission","type":"phenomenon","name":"Thermionic emission","aliases":["Richardson emission","Edison effect"],"domain":"condensed-matter","summary":"Electrons boil off a hot surface when their thermal energy exceeds the work function. Collected at a cooler electrode across a vacuum gap they carry current at a potential difference.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["env-vacuum","temp-high","state-solid"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1901,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/thermionic-emission"},{"id":"phenomenon:thermoacoustic-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Thermoacoustic effect","aliases":["Rijke tube","Sondhauss tube","thermoacoustic oscillation","thermoacoustic engine","thermoacoustic prime mover","thermoacoustic heat engine","thermoacoustic instability"],"domain":"thermodynamics","summary":"A sufficiently steep temperature gradient along a porous stack in a resonant gas column drives self-sustained acoustic oscillation. Heat becomes sound with no moving parts.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-gas","temp-gradient-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1850,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/thermoacoustic-effect"},{"id":"phenomenon:pyroelectric-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Pyroelectric effect","aliases":[],"domain":"condensed-matter","summary":"A change in temperature changes the spontaneous polarisation of a polar crystal, which releases surface charge. Only temperature change produces current, not a steady gradient.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","medium-ferroelectric","transient-only"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1824,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/pyroelectric-effect"},{"id":"phenomenon:thermogalvanic-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Thermogalvanic effect","aliases":["thermocell","thermo-electrochemical effect","Seebeck effect in electrolytes"],"domain":"electrochemistry","summary":"Two identical electrodes in the same redox electrolyte held at different temperatures develop a potential difference, because the reaction entropy makes the redox potential temperature-dependent. Coefficients of ~1 mV/K are typical, ten times a solid thermocouple.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-liquid","env-aqueous","temp-gradient-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1950,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/thermogalvanic-effect"},{"id":"phenomenon:soret-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Soret effect","aliases":["thermodiffusion","thermophoresis in liquids"],"domain":"thermodynamics","summary":"A temperature gradient in a mixture drives a concentration gradient as species migrate toward the hot or cold side. A thermal disequilibrium becomes a chemical one.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-liquid","temp-gradient-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1856,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/soret-effect"},{"id":"phenomenon:nernst-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Nernst effect","aliases":["Nernst–Ettingshausen effect"],"domain":"condensed-matter","summary":"A temperature gradient in a conductor placed in a perpendicular magnetic field produces an electric field perpendicular to both. The transverse counterpart of the Seebeck effect.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","medium-conductor","field-magnetic-required","temp-gradient-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1886,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/nernst-effect"},{"id":"phenomenon:anomalous-nernst-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Anomalous Nernst effect","aliases":[],"domain":"spin-systems","summary":"In a magnetised conductor a temperature gradient produces a transverse voltage proportional to the magnetisation rather than to an applied field. Allows thermopiles laid out as simple films.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","medium-ferromagnet","temp-gradient-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1886,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/anomalous-nernst-effect"},{"id":"phenomenon:ettingshausen-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Ettingshausen effect","aliases":[],"domain":"condensed-matter","summary":"A current in a conductor in a perpendicular magnetic field produces a transverse temperature gradient; the reverse of the Nernst effect.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","medium-conductor","field-magnetic-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1886,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/ettingshausen-effect"},{"id":"phenomenon:thermomagnetic-transition","type":"phenomenon","name":"Thermomagnetic (Curie-point) transition","aliases":["pyromagnetic effect","magnetisation change with temperature"],"domain":"condensed-matter","summary":"Heating a soft ferromagnet through its Curie temperature collapses its magnetisation; cooling restores it. Cycling a magnetic circuit between hot and cold regions changes the flux through a coil.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","medium-ferromagnet","temp-gradient-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1887,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/thermomagnetic-transition"},{"id":"phenomenon:magnetocaloric-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Magnetocaloric effect","aliases":[],"domain":"condensed-matter","summary":"Magnetising a paramagnet or ferromagnet adiabatically raises its temperature; demagnetising lowers it. The entropy of the spin system is exchanged with the lattice.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","medium-ferromagnet","field-magnetic-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1881,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/magnetocaloric-effect"},{"id":"phenomenon:electrocaloric-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Electrocaloric effect","aliases":[],"domain":"condensed-matter","summary":"An applied electric field changes the temperature of a polar dielectric by changing its dipolar entropy. The converse of the pyroelectric effect.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","medium-ferroelectric","field-electric-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1930,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/phenomenon/electrocaloric-effect"},{"id":"phenomenon:elastocaloric-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Elastocaloric effect","aliases":["mechanocaloric effect","stress-induced caloric effect","elastocaloric cooling"],"domain":"condensed-matter","summary":"Stressing a shape-memory alloy through its martensitic transformation releases latent heat; unloading absorbs it. 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