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a self-pumping heat-transport device with no moving parts.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 10 (frontier as a research instrument)"}},{"id":"transducer:thermocapillary-micromotor","type":"transducer","name":"Thermocapillary micromotor","aliases":["light-driven microgear","Marangoni micromotor"],"summary":"A microfabricated asymmetric gear at a liquid–air interface spins when absorbed light heats it unevenly; the surface-tension gradient around its teeth drives a thermocapillary flow that torques the gear (Maggi et al. 2015, up to 300 r.p.m.).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K5","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 16 (frontier candidates audited as physics; source read)"}},{"id":"transducer:marangoni-rotor-generator","type":"transducer","name":"Marangoni rotor mini-generator","aliases":["camphor rotor generator","solutocapillary generator"],"summary":"A floating polymer rotor carrying camphor and permanent magnets spins for hours on a solutocapillary Marangoni stress; the moving magnets induce a current in a stationary coil (Frenkel et al. 2019, 1.6 mV across 35 Ω).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K5","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 16 (frontier candidates audited as physics; source read)"}},{"id":"transducer:thermo-driven-nanofluidic-converter","type":"transducer","name":"Thermo-driven nanofluidic electrokinetic converter","aliases":["thermo-osmotic streaming-current membrane"],"summary":"A charged track-etched membrane between hot and cold reservoirs; thermo-osmotic flow through the nanochannels carries the double-layer counter-ions, giving a streaming current that rises with the temperature difference (Zhao et al. 2020, 14 nA at ΔT = 47.5 °C over 0.5 cm²; electrical power computed, not delivered to a load).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K4","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 16 (frontier candidates audited as physics; source read in pass 13)"}},{"id":"transducer:thermomagnetic-hydrodynamic-harvester","type":"transducer","name":"Thermomagnetic hydrodynamic energy harvester","aliases":["ferrofluid toroidal harvester","thermomagnetic advection generator"],"summary":"A closed toroidal loop in which a ferrofluid advects thermomagnetically between Peltier-controlled hot and cold sections under permanent magnets; induction coils wound on the torus extract electrical power from the moving magnetised fluid (Chiolerio et al. 2020, up to 10.4 μW per kelvin).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 16 (frontier candidates audited as physics; source read)"}},{"id":"transducer:thermomagnetic-fluid-engine","type":"transducer","name":"Thermomagnetic fluid engine","aliases":["magnetic-fluid rotor engine"],"summary":"A permanent magnet, a kerosene-based temperature-sensitive magnetic fluid and a rotor; heating the fluid in the field sets up thermomagnetic convection that drives the rotor (Zhou et al. 2009, about 2.1 rad/min).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K5","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 16 (frontier candidates audited as physics; source read)"}},{"id":"transducer:pneumatic-pressure-piezo-harvester","type":"transducer","name":"Pneumatic pressure piezoelectric harvester","aliases":["air-pressure impact piezoelectric harvester"],"summary":"A sealed piezoelectric element on a branch of a pneumatic line is stressed by the pressure excursions of the system and delivers transient electrical power (Yang et al. 2022, 140 μW peak at 1.5 MΩ for a 0 to 0.5 MPa excursion).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K5","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 16 (frontier candidates audited as physics; source read)"}},{"id":"transducer:wave-impact-piezo-harvester","type":"transducer","name":"Wave-impact piezoelectric harvester","aliases":["impact-ball piezoelectric wave harvester"],"summary":"Vertical pipes holding stacked PZT discs and free impact balls; wave motion throws the balls against the discs, whose stress produces charge (Mozumder and Banik 2026, laboratory tests at 0.1–2 Hz).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K5","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 16 (frontier candidates audited as physics; source read)"}},{"id":"constraint:radiation-momentum-flux","type":"constraint","name":"Radiation momentum flux","aliases":[],"summary":"Radiation pressure is set by the momentum flux of the radiation, I/c to 2I/c. In full sunlight (I ≈ 1 kW m⁻²) that is at most ≈ 6.7 µPa; a surface moving at 0.1 m s⁻¹ against it receives at most ≈ 7 × 10⁻⁷ W m⁻², so mechanical work from radiation pressure is confined to high-irradiance or micro-scale regimes.","bound":"p = I/c for full absorption, p ≤ 2I/c for perfect reflection at normal incidence; the mechanical power a moving surface can take from the pressure is at most p·v per unit area","constraint_kind":"resource-bound","metric":"mechanical-power-density","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":["disequilibrium:radiation-flux"],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 16 (frontier candidates audited as physics)"}},{"id":"transducer:flexoelectric-vibration-harvester","type":"transducer","name":"Flexoelectric vibration harvester","aliases":["flexoelectric energy harvester","FEH"],"summary":"A vibrating dielectric cantilever develops bending strain gradients that polarise an unpolarised flexoelectric layer; electrodes deliver the induced charge to a load (Yang et al. 2025, ≈ 0.19 V at 20 Hz and 0.915 g).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K5","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 20 (the last two candidate compositions audited as physics; source read in full)"}},{"id":"transducer:vibration-elastocaloric-cooler","type":"transducer","name":"Vibration-driven elastocaloric cooler (proposed)","aliases":["vibration induced refrigerator"],"summary":"Proposed cantilever refrigerator in which cyclic cantilever stress drives the elastocaloric response of off-axis ferroelectric patches and periodic contacts transfer the heat; finite-element analysis only (Kumar et al. 2019).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K3","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 20 (the last two candidate compositions audited as physics; abstract read)"}},{"id":"transducer:bending-elastocaloric-air-cooler","type":"transducer","name":"Bending-actuated NiTi elastocaloric air cooler","aliases":["low-force bending elastocaloric cooler"],"summary":"Bent NiTi sheets driven through their transformation at 5.64 N g⁻¹ cool an air stream by 5.5 K with 0.137 W g⁻¹ specific cooling power; the driver is an actuator's stress, not ambient vibration (Li, Cheng and Sun 2022).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 20 (the last two candidate compositions audited as physics; abstract read)"}},{"id":"transducer:thermal-osmosis-electrokinetic-generator","type":"transducer","name":"Thermal-osmosis electrokinetic generator (MD-EPG)","aliases":["MD-EPG","membrane distiller + electrokinetic power generator","TOEC electrokinetic module"],"summary":"Two-stage laboratory converter coupling a thermal-osmosis (membrane-distillation) module, whose pressurised cold-side water is the working stream, to a pressure-driven electrokinetic microchannel generator (Huang et al. 2021; Luo et al. 2023, 1.12 W m⁻² at ΔT = 50 °C).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K5","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 21 (TOEC route search; abstracts read)"}},{"id":"transducer:permeate-gap-thermo-osmotic-generator","type":"transducer","name":"Permeate-gap thermo-osmotic generator (PGTO)","aliases":["PGTO system","permeate gap thermo-osmotic system","pump-free thermo-osmotic generator"],"summary":"A permeate-gap membrane-distillation module pressurises its own permeate into an elevated tank; the released stream drives a small hydro-turbine generator (Xiao et al. 2024, 32 cm², a 2 W-rated bulb lit at about 1.5 m head). Gravitational storage sits between the thermo-osmotic flow and the turbine, so it is a longer-chain relative of the TOEC composition.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K5","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 21 (TOEC route search; source read in full)"}},{"id":"transducer:micro-thermophotovoltaic-generator","type":"transducer","name":"Combustion-driven micro-thermophotovoltaic generator (μTPV)","aliases":["μTPV generator","microcombustor TPV","combustion TPV","micro-TPV"],"summary":"A propane microcombustor heats a photonic-crystal selective emitter whose thermal radiation falls on low-bandgap GaInAsSb photovoltaic cells (Chan et al. 2013: 344 mW over 1 cm², 2.5 % of 13.7 W thermal input).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 22 (Scholar runs, the parallel-driver rule and the head rule; abstract read)"}},{"id":"transducer:radioluminescent-nuclear-battery","type":"transducer","name":"Radioluminescent (beta-photovoltaic) nuclear battery","aliases":["β-PV nuclear battery","radiophotovoltaic battery","scintillator–photovoltaic nuclear battery","RL nuclear battery"],"summary":"A β⁻ emitter (⁶³Ni) excites a phosphor (ZnS:Cu,Al) whose radioluminescence is converted by a spectrally matched InGaP photovoltaic cell (Russo et al. 2017: 3.35 nW cm⁻², 0.289 % total conversion efficiency in the volumetric configuration).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 22 (Scholar runs, the parallel-driver rule and the head rule; abstract read)"}},{"id":"transducer:evaporation-driven-generator","type":"transducer","name":"Evaporation-driven oscillator generator","aliases":["HYDRA generator","evaporation-driven electricity generator","spore-muscle generator"],"summary":"Hygroscopy-driven artificial muscles (bacterial spores on tape) form a shutter-controlled relaxation oscillator above evaporating water; its piston-like motion turns an electromagnetic generator (Chen et al. 2015: LEDs lit, 60 μW bursts and 1.8 μW average into 100 kΩ).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 23 (triage of the released candidates; source read in full)"}},{"id":"transducer:waterwheel-generator","type":"transducer","name":"Waterwheel generator (pico hydro)","aliases":["pico-hydro waterwheel","undershot wheel generator","stream wheel generator"],"summary":"An undershot or overshot waterwheel in an open channel driving an electrical generator directly (Asim et al. 2022: a 3 kW generator at full load on a 1.54 kW appliance load).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K7","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 23 (triage of the released candidates; Asim 2022 read on the publisher's page)"}},{"id":"transducer:thermoacoustic-piezoelectric-harvester","type":"transducer","name":"Thermoacoustic piezoelectric harvester","aliases":["thermoacoustic nanofibre generator","PAN thermoacoustic harvester"],"summary":"A thermally stabilised piezoelectric nanofibre membrane placed in a thermoacoustic engine's sound field converts the wave into electricity at up to 450 °C (Zheng et al. 2022: 102 V and 10 μA peak from a 3 × 3 cm² device on the engine, 30 LEDs lit, a battery charged).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 25 (abstract read; a known device of the piezoelectric family, not the acoustoelectric route)"}},{"id":"transducer:thermoacoustic-triboelectric-harvester","type":"transducer","name":"Thermoacoustic triboelectric harvester","aliases":["thermoacoustic TENG","TAE-TENG"],"summary":"A piston-assisted thermoacoustic engine actuates a contact-separation triboelectric nanogenerator (Li et al. 2026: 0.49 mW peak at 80 MΩ with heating around 150 °C; a wireless sensor powered).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 27 (abstract read; the second reader's spelling)"}},{"id":"transducer:regenerative-elastocaloric-heat-pump","type":"transducer","name":"Regenerative elastocaloric heat pump","aliases":["active elastocaloric regenerator","elastocaloric heat pump"],"summary":"Superelastic NiTi plates cycled through their transformation in an active regenerator pump heat up a water-side temperature span of 15.3 K with specific heating power up to 800 W kg⁻¹ and COP up to 7 (Tušek et al. 2016).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K7","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 31 (abstract read on the publisher's page)"}},{"id":"transducer:gas-turbine-generator","type":"transducer","name":"Gas-turbine generator","aliases":["gas turbine plant","open-cycle gas turbine","simple-cycle gas turbine","combustion turbine"],"summary":"Compressor, combustor and turbine on one shaft driving an alternator; the hot combustion gas expands through the turbine (Brayton cycle). Open cycle on its own; the topping member of a combined cycle when its exhaust raises steam.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 34 (the second reader's finding 22; Dixon & Hall 2014, Al Mhanna 2024)"}},{"id":"transducer:boiling-water-reactor-plant","type":"transducer","name":"Boiling-water reactor plant","aliases":["BWR","boiling water reactor","direct-cycle reactor plant"],"summary":"A light-water reactor whose coolant boils in the reactor vessel: the steam–water mixture leaves the core, passes two stages of moisture separation and goes by steamline to the main turbine-generator; the exhaust is condensed and pumped back to the vessel. The same circuit is reactor coolant and turbine working fluid — the defining distinction from a pressurised-water reactor, whose steam generator makes a separate secondary steam.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 38 (the second reader's spelling; the NRC's BWR description read in full)"}},{"id":"transducer:pwr-steam-generator","type":"transducer","name":"PWR steam generator","aliases":["steam generator","primary-to-secondary heat exchanger"],"summary":"A heat exchanger whose tubes separate pressurised primary reactor coolant from secondary water while transferring heat that boils the secondary water into turbine steam; the primary coolant never crosses into the secondary circuit.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 40 (the second reader's finding 32; the NRC's PWR description read in full)"}},{"id":"constraint:planck-visible-band-fraction","type":"constraint","name":"Visible-band fraction of thermal emission","aliases":[],"summary":"An incandescent source cannot put more of its radiated power into visible light than the Planck spectrum at its temperature contains there; the ceiling rises with temperature towards the ≈ 6600 K blackbody optimum and is a few per cent at filament temperatures. The band integral has no closed form, so the check records the bound as not evaluable until a band-fraction table or series is curated; a datum compared with it must state the emitter temperature.","bound":"η_vis ≤ ∫₃₈₀ⁿᵐ⁷⁸⁰ⁿᵐ B_λ(λ, T) dλ / σT⁴ — the share of a thermal emitter's radiated power that Planck's distribution places in the visible band at the emitter temperature","constraint_kind":"formula-bound","metric":"conversion-efficiency","formula_inputs":["T_emitter_K"],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":["output:light"],"applies_to_phenomena":["phenomenon:thermal-emission"],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 42 (theoretical_limit retired into the typed constraint graph; Bejan 2016's thermal-radiation treatment cited for Planck's distribution)"}},{"id":"constraint:gibbs-enthalpy-ratio-bound","type":"constraint","name":"Reversible electrochemical efficiency (ΔG/ΔH)","aliases":[],"summary":"An electrochemical converter operating reversibly delivers the Gibbs free-energy change of its reaction as electrical work, so its efficiency on the reaction enthalpy cannot exceed ΔG/ΔH — 83 % for hydrogen and oxygen at standard conditions with liquid water as the product. A ratio of the reaction's own thermochemistry, not of temperatures: for the direct oxidation of carbon ΔG exceeds ΔH and the ratio passes 100 %. Evaluated only against an efficiency datum that records both ΔG and ΔH of its reaction on the same basis.","bound":"η ≤ ΔG/ΔH of the cell reaction; 237.1/285.8 = 0.83 for H₂ + ½O₂ → H₂O(l) at 25 °C, 1 atm (higher-heating-value basis)","constraint_kind":"formula-bound","metric":"conversion-efficiency","formula":"delta_G_kJ_per_mol / delta_H_kJ_per_mol","formula_inputs":["delta_G_kJ_per_mol","delta_H_kJ_per_mol"],"reference_value":0.83,"reference_regime":"H₂ + ½O₂ → H₂O(l), 25 °C, 1 atm: ΔG 237.1 kJ/mol, ΔH 285.8 kJ/mol","applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":["output:electricity"],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 42 (DOE Fuel Cell Handbook, 7th ed., equations 2-14 to 2-17 read)"}},{"id":"constraint:photosynthesis-glucose-free-energy-limit","type":"constraint","name":"Photosynthetic glucose-production limit","aliases":[],"summary":"Blankenship et al. 2011 calculate a theoretical limit of about 12 % for the free-energy efficiency of photosynthetic glucose production from CO₂ and water by considering the chlorophyll band-edge absorption and the two-photosystem structure of oxygenic photosynthesis, whose two photosystems compete for the same regions of the solar spectrum. Compared only with a datum that states the same basis.","bound":"η ≤ ≈ 12 % of incident solar energy stored as glucose free energy, for oxygenic photosynthesis from CO₂ and water under the chlorophyll band-edge and two-photosystem assumptions","constraint_kind":"upper-bound","metric":"conversion-efficiency","formula_inputs":[],"max_efficiency":0.12,"requires_basis":"oxygenic photosynthesis, glucose from CO₂ and water, free-energy basis, full solar spectrum","applies_to_sources":["disequilibrium:radiation-flux"],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":["phenomenon:photosynthesis"],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 42 (Blankenship et al. 2011 read in full in pass 39; typed here)"}},{"id":"constraint:photosynthesis-physiological-maximum","type":"constraint","name":"Physiology-limited photosynthetic maximum","aliases":[],"summary":"The maximum a plant can reach once the known physiological losses are subtracted from the ≈ 12 % free-energy limit — a benchmark for crops, never a ceiling on the phenomenon, so it is listed on a route and never decides it.","bound":"≈ 4.6 % (C3) and 6.0 % (C4) of incident solar energy after the known losses in light harvesting, overpotentials and respiration","constraint_kind":"benchmark","metric":"conversion-efficiency","formula_inputs":[],"reference_value":0.06,"reference_regime":"C4 plants; 4.6 % for C3 plants (Zhu, Long & Ort 2010, as cited by Blankenship et al. 2011)","applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":["phenomenon:photosynthesis"],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 42 (typed from Blankenship et al. 2011's attribution to Zhu, Long & Ort 2010)"}},{"id":"constraint:pec-water-splitting-single-junction-ideal-limit","type":"constraint","name":"PEC water-splitting ideal limit, single junction","aliases":[],"summary":"Fountaine, Lewerenz & Atwater's ideal-case limit for photoelectrochemical water splitting with one absorber: complete above-gap absorption, detailed-balance dark current with only radiative recombination, ideality 1, negligible catalytic overpotentials, no series resistance, E_rxn = 1.23 V, unity Faradaic efficiency, AM1.5G. A bound on water splitting, not on every manifestation of the photoelectrochemical effect: a datum is compared only when it states this basis.","bound":"η_STH ≤ 30.6 % for a single-junction photoelectrochemical water-splitting device under AM1.5G in the ideal case (E_g 1.59 eV at the maximum)","constraint_kind":"upper-bound","metric":"conversion-efficiency","formula_inputs":[],"max_efficiency":0.306,"requires_basis":"PEC water splitting, single-junction absorber, AM1.5G","applies_to_sources":["disequilibrium:radiation-flux"],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":["phenomenon:photoelectrochemical-effect"],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 46 (Fountaine 2016 read in full)"}},{"id":"constraint:pec-water-splitting-dual-junction-ideal-limit","type":"constraint","name":"PEC water-splitting ideal limit, dual junction","aliases":[],"summary":"The same ideal assumptions as the single-junction limit, for two absorbers in series: the global maximum over all gap pairs. A particular gap pair has a lower ceiling of its own (Cheng 2018's 1.78 / 1.26 eV tandem: 22.8 %), which lives on that architecture's pathway, never here.","bound":"η_STH ≤ 40.0 % for a dual-junction photoelectrochemical water-splitting device under AM1.5G in the ideal case (E_g 0.52 / 1.40 eV at the maximum); a third junction adds nothing (the ideal triple-junction maximum is 28.3 %)","constraint_kind":"upper-bound","metric":"conversion-efficiency","formula_inputs":[],"max_efficiency":0.4,"requires_basis":"PEC water splitting, dual-junction absorber, AM1.5G","applies_to_sources":["disequilibrium:radiation-flux"],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":["phenomenon:photoelectrochemical-effect"],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 46 (Fountaine 2016 read in full)"}},{"id":"constraint:pec-water-splitting-realistic-high-performance","type":"constraint","name":"PEC water-splitting realistic limiting efficiency, high-performance materials (Fountaine Real1)","aliases":[],"summary":"The maxima of a parameterised model case — Fountaine, Lewerenz & Atwater's 'realistic limiting efficiencies' for high-performance materials — a benchmark listed on a route, never a bound that decides it; the parameter bundle is the record, not the four numbers alone.","bound":"η_max 15.1 % single junction (E_g 2.05 eV) and 28.3 % dual junction (1.59 / 0.92 eV) for absorption fraction 0.9, external radiative efficiency 0.03, catalytic exchange current densities {1, 10⁻³} mA cm⁻² (cathodic, anodic), series resistance 0, shunt resistance infinite","constraint_kind":"benchmark","metric":"conversion-efficiency","formula_inputs":[],"reference_value":0.283,"reference_regime":"dual junction, 1.59 / 0.92 eV, the Real1 parameter bundle of Table 1; 15.1 % for the single junction at 2.05 eV","applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":["phenomenon:photoelectrochemical-effect"],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 46 (Fountaine 2016 read in full; Table 1)"}},{"id":"constraint:pec-water-splitting-realistic-earth-abundant","type":"constraint","name":"PEC water-splitting realistic limiting efficiency, Earth-abundant materials (Fountaine Real2)","aliases":[],"summary":"The maxima of the Earth-abundant-materials model case of Fountaine, Lewerenz & Atwater — 'realistic limiting efficiencies', a benchmark listed on a route and never decisive.","bound":"η_max 5.4 % single junction (E_g 2.53 eV) and 16.2 % dual junction (1.93 / 1.38 eV) for absorption fraction 0.9, external radiative efficiency 10⁻⁶, catalytic exchange current densities {1, 10⁻⁵} mA cm⁻², normalised series resistivity 0.1 and shunt resistivity 10","constraint_kind":"benchmark","metric":"conversion-efficiency","formula_inputs":[],"reference_value":0.162,"reference_regime":"dual junction, 1.93 / 1.38 eV, the Real2 parameter bundle of Table 1; 5.4 % for the single junction at 2.53 eV","applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":["phenomenon:photoelectrochemical-effect"],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 46 (Fountaine 2016 read in full; Table 1)"}},{"id":"constraint:pec-tandem-gainp-gainas-1p78-1p26ev-limit","type":"constraint","name":"Theoretical STH limit for the GaInP/GaInAs 1.78 / 1.26 eV tandem (Cheng 2018)","aliases":[],"summary":"The theoretical efficiency for one gap combination, reached by two assumption bundles that are not the same model: Cheng et al. 2018's SQwater calculation (100 % above-gap absorption, 100 % external radiative efficiency, finite catalytic exchange current densities {1, 10⁻³} mA cm⁻², R_S = 0, R_SH = ∞) gives 22.8 %, and Fountaine, Lewerenz & Atwater 2016's Ideal case (j0,cat → ∞ among its nine ideal assumptions) independently gives 22.8 % for the May et al. 1.26 / 1.78 eV combination, with 20.5 % under its Real1 bundle. Cheng et al. report their device at 0.85 of it (19.3 / 22.8). An architecture-specific bound: recorded only in the exact tandem pathway's bounds, never on the generic photoelectrochemical route, whose ceiling is the global dual-junction maximum (pass 46 close: each source's assumptions stay its own).","bound":"η_STH ≤ 22.8 % for the 1.78 eV / 1.26 eV GaInP/GaInAs dual-junction photocathode under AM1.5G, assuming 100 % above-bandgap absorption and 100 % external radiative efficiency (catalytic exchange current densities {1, 10⁻³} mA cm⁻², R_S = 0, R_SH = ∞)","constraint_kind":"upper-bound","metric":"conversion-efficiency","formula_inputs":[],"max_efficiency":0.228,"requires_basis":"PEC water splitting, dual-junction absorber, AM1.5G","applies_to_sources":["disequilibrium:radiation-flux"],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":["phenomenon:photoelectrochemical-effect"],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 46 (Cheng 2018 full text read on arXiv 1706.01493)"}},{"id":"phenomenon:radiation-pressure","type":"phenomenon","name":"Radiation pressure","aliases":["photon momentum transfer","light pressure","solar sail thrust"],"domain":"optics-photonics","summary":"Electromagnetic radiation carries momentum; absorbing or reflecting it exerts a force on matter (2I/c for a perfect mirror at normal incidence), which can do mechanical work — the principle of the solar sail.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1901,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"phenomenon:dufour-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Dufour effect","aliases":["diffusion thermoeffect"],"domain":"thermodynamics","summary":"A concentration gradient in a liquid or gas mixture drives a heat flux, the Onsager-reciprocal partner of the Soret effect. A chemical disequilibrium becomes a thermal one.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":[],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1872,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 7 audit (ChatGPT review, applied and source-verified by the lane)"}},{"id":"phenomenon:marangoni-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Marangoni effect","aliases":["surface-tension-gradient-driven flow","thermocapillary flow","solutocapillary flow","thermocapillary","solutocapillary","destillocapillarity","thermal Marangoni","thermal Marangoni effect"],"domain":"fluid-mechanics","summary":"A gradient of surface tension along a liquid interface exerts a tangential stress that drives bulk flow. Temperature or composition gradients along the surface are the usual causes.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-liquid"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1865,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"phenomenon:acoustoelectric-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Acoustoelectric effect","aliases":["acoustoelectric current","phonon drag by a travelling wave","acousto-electric effect","acoustoelectric voltage","acoustoelectric drag","Weinreich relation"],"domain":"condensed-matter","summary":"A travelling acoustic wave transfers momentum to mobile charge carriers in a semiconductor or metal, producing a direct current or voltage along the direction of propagation.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1957,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 7 audit (ChatGPT review, applied and source-verified by the lane)"}},{"id":"phenomenon:photon-drag-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Photon drag effect","aliases":["optical drag current"],"domain":"optics-photonics","summary":"Absorbed or redirected photon momentum generates a longitudinal electrical response in a material; the magnitude and polarity depend on the carrier and interface physics and need not follow the naive free-electron momentum-transfer sign. A momentum-transfer effect, distinct from the photovoltaic effect.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","illumination-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1970,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 7 audit (ChatGPT review, applied and source-verified by the lane)"}},{"id":"phenomenon:spin-nernst-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Spin Nernst effect","aliases":["thermal spin Hall effect"],"domain":"spin-systems","summary":"A longitudinal temperature gradient in a spin–orbit-coupled conductor generates a transverse pure spin current, the thermal analogue of the spin Hall effect.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","medium-conductor","temp-gradient-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":2017,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"phenomenon:photo-dember-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Photo-Dember effect","aliases":["photodiffusion voltage","surface photocurrent"],"domain":"optics-photonics","summary":"Non-uniform photoexcitation creates electron and hole concentration gradients; unequal carrier transport separates charge and sets up a Dember field. Under ultrafast pulsed excitation the transient current is widely used for terahertz emission; steady-state Dember photovoltages are derived in the same framework.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","medium-semiconductor","illumination-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1931,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 7 audit (ChatGPT review, applied and source-verified by the lane)"}},{"id":"phenomenon:thermo-osmosis","type":"phenomenon","name":"Thermo-osmosis","aliases":["thermal osmosis","thermo-osmotic flow","thermoosmosis","thermo-osmotic","thermo-osmotic energy conversion","vapor pressure-driven osmosis","VPDO","pressure-retarded membrane distillation","PRMD"],"domain":"thermodynamics","summary":"A temperature difference across a membrane drives a net volume flow of solvent, distinct from the Soret effect, which separates species without net volume transport.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["medium-membrane","temp-gradient-required","state-liquid"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1907,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"phenomenon:electrohydrodynamic-generation","type":"phenomenon","name":"Electrohydrodynamic generation","aliases":["EHD generator","electrogasdynamic generation","charged-fluid flow against a field"],"domain":"fluid-mechanics","summary":"Charge carried by a flowing dielectric fluid is transported against an electric field, converting the fluid's kinetic energy directly into electrical work at a collector.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["flow-required","field-electric-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1977,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"phenomenon:ionic-thermoelectric-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Ionic thermoelectric effect","aliases":["ionic Seebeck effect","thermodiffusion of ions"],"domain":"electrochemistry","summary":"A temperature gradient drives differential thermodiffusion of cations and anions in an electrolyte, building an ionic space charge and a thermovoltage of millivolts per kelvin without any electrode redox entropy.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["temp-gradient-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":2011,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"phenomenon:thermomagnetic-ferrofluid-convection","type":"phenomenon","name":"Thermomagnetic convection","aliases":["ferrofluid convection","magnetocaloric pumping in ferrofluids","thermomagnetic pumping","thermomagnetic pump"],"domain":"fluid-mechanics","summary":"In a magnetic fluid whose magnetisation falls with temperature, a magnetic field gradient pulls cooler, more strongly magnetised fluid toward the field, driving convection without gravity or pumps.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-liquid","field-magnetic-required","temp-gradient-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1970,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"phenomenon:thermally-driven-shape-memory-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Thermal shape-memory effect","aliases":["shape-memory transformation","martensitic thermal actuation"],"domain":"condensed-matter","summary":"Heating a deformed shape-memory alloy through its martensite–austenite transformation recovers strain and exerts large stress; cycling between a hot and a cold reservoir gives cyclic mechanical motion (the reservoirs are needed for heat-engine operation, not for a single recovery event).","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1951,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 7 audit (ChatGPT review, applied and source-verified by the lane)"}},{"id":"phenomenon:thermochemical-redox-cycle","type":"phenomenon","name":"Thermochemical redox cycle","aliases":["solar thermochemical water splitting","two-step metal-oxide cycle"],"domain":"chemistry","summary":"A metal oxide is reduced endothermically at high temperature and re-oxidised by water or carbon dioxide at a lower temperature, storing thermal exergy as hydrogen or carbon monoxide.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["temp-high"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1977,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"phenomenon:alphavoltaic-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Alphavoltaic effect","aliases":[],"domain":"nuclear-physics","summary":"Alpha particles stopped in a semiconductor junction create dense tracks of electron–hole pairs that the junction separates; short range and heavy lattice damage distinguish it from the betavoltaic effect.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","medium-semiconductor","radioisotope-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1954,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"phenomenon:radioluminescence","type":"phenomenon","name":"Radioluminescence","aliases":["scintillation","tritium light"],"domain":"nuclear-physics","summary":"Ionising decay radiation excites a scintillator or phosphor, which emits visible or ultraviolet photons; those photons can drive a photovoltaic cell in a two-stage nuclear battery.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","radioisotope-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1903,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 7 audit (ChatGPT review, applied and source-verified by the lane)"}},{"id":"phenomenon:thermopolarization-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Thermopolarization effect","aliases":["thermopolarization","thermal polarization effect","proper thermopolarization","temperature-gradient-induced polarization"],"domain":"condensed-matter","summary":"Polarization induced by a spatial temperature gradient in an insulating or polar dielectric medium. In solids this includes the historical 'proper thermopolarization' response — the direct ∇T → P contribution after separating pyroelectric and thermomechanical / flexoelectric contributions; in polar molecular liquids the same macroscopic ∇T → polarization coupling appears through non-equilibrium molecular orientation and multipolar response (Bresme and co-workers, simulation only). Thermally induced flexoelectric or pyroelectric responses remain distinct causal mechanisms: thermopolarization names the measured ∇T-induced polarization, not a unique microscopic mechanism — Iwakiri et al. 2026 attribute their measured component to thermomechanical flexoelectricity because its magnitude scales with thermal expansion and a strain-gradient FEM reproduces the observations, while the historical 'proper' effect is the direct residual response distinguished from that tertiary / flexoelectric contribution.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["medium-dielectric","temp-gradient-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1969,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 32 (widened to polar liquids as one phenomenon with two claims: Bresme 2008 simulated, Armstrong 2015 and Gittus 2020 replicated in simulation; pass 28: Marvan 1969 predicted, Kholkin 1982 measured (read in full), Tagantsev 1987 defined, Onishi 2025 theorised; the second reader's spelling)"}},{"id":"phenomenon:seebeck-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Seebeck effect","aliases":["thermoelectric effect","thermo-EMF"],"domain":"condensed-matter","summary":"At open circuit, temperature-driven carrier transport along a conductor is balanced by an electric field, producing a measurable thermoelectric voltage between the ends (or across a junction of dissimilar conductors). Its polarity depends on the transport coefficients, the dominant carriers and the stated sign convention.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","medium-conductor","temp-gradient-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1821,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"phenomenon:peltier-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Peltier effect","aliases":[],"domain":"condensed-matter","summary":"A current through a junction of dissimilar conductors absorbs or releases heat at the junction, the reverse of the Seebeck effect. Basis of thermoelectric cooling.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","medium-conductor"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1834,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"phenomenon:thomson-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Thomson effect","aliases":[],"domain":"condensed-matter","summary":"Reversible heating or cooling of a single conductor carrying a current along a temperature gradient. Links the Seebeck and Peltier coefficients through the Kelvin relations.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","medium-conductor"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1851,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"phenomenon:thermionic-emission","type":"phenomenon","name":"Thermionic emission","aliases":["Richardson emission","Edison effect"],"domain":"condensed-matter","summary":"Electrons boil off a hot surface when their thermal energy exceeds the work function. Collected at a cooler electrode across a vacuum gap they carry current at a potential difference.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["env-vacuum","temp-high","state-solid"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1901,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"phenomenon:thermoacoustic-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Thermoacoustic effect","aliases":["Rijke tube","Sondhauss tube","thermoacoustic oscillation","thermoacoustic engine","thermoacoustic prime mover","thermoacoustic heat engine","thermoacoustic instability"],"domain":"thermodynamics","summary":"A sufficiently steep temperature gradient along a porous stack in a resonant gas column drives self-sustained acoustic oscillation. Heat becomes sound with no moving parts.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-gas","temp-gradient-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1850,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"phenomenon:pyroelectric-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Pyroelectric effect","aliases":[],"domain":"condensed-matter","summary":"A change in temperature changes the spontaneous polarisation of a polar crystal, which releases surface charge. Only temperature change produces current, not a steady gradient.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","medium-ferroelectric","transient-only"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1824,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"phenomenon:thermogalvanic-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Thermogalvanic effect","aliases":["thermocell","thermo-electrochemical effect","Seebeck effect in electrolytes"],"domain":"electrochemistry","summary":"Two identical electrodes in the same redox electrolyte held at different temperatures develop a potential difference, because the reaction entropy makes the redox potential temperature-dependent. Coefficients of ~1 mV/K are typical, ten times a solid thermocouple.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-liquid","env-aqueous","temp-gradient-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1950,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"phenomenon:soret-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Soret effect","aliases":["thermodiffusion","thermophoresis in liquids"],"domain":"thermodynamics","summary":"A temperature gradient in a mixture drives a concentration gradient as species migrate toward the hot or cold side. A thermal disequilibrium becomes a chemical one.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-liquid","temp-gradient-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1856,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"phenomenon:nernst-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Nernst effect","aliases":["Nernst–Ettingshausen effect"],"domain":"condensed-matter","summary":"A temperature gradient in a conductor placed in a perpendicular magnetic field produces an electric field perpendicular to both. The transverse counterpart of the Seebeck effect.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","medium-conductor","field-magnetic-required","temp-gradient-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1886,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"phenomenon:anomalous-nernst-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Anomalous Nernst effect","aliases":[],"domain":"spin-systems","summary":"In a magnetised conductor a temperature gradient produces a transverse voltage proportional to the magnetisation rather than to an applied field. Allows thermopiles laid out as simple films.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","medium-ferromagnet","temp-gradient-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1886,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"phenomenon:ettingshausen-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Ettingshausen effect","aliases":[],"domain":"condensed-matter","summary":"A current in a conductor in a perpendicular magnetic field produces a transverse temperature gradient; the reverse of the Nernst effect.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","medium-conductor","field-magnetic-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1886,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"phenomenon:thermomagnetic-transition","type":"phenomenon","name":"Thermomagnetic (Curie-point) transition","aliases":["pyromagnetic effect","magnetisation change with temperature"],"domain":"condensed-matter","summary":"Heating a soft ferromagnet through its Curie temperature collapses its magnetisation; cooling restores it. Cycling a magnetic circuit between hot and cold regions changes the flux through a coil.","formula_inputs":[],"applies_to_sources":[],"applies_to_outputs":[],"applies_to_phenomena":[],"condition_tags":["state-solid","medium-ferromagnet","temp-gradient-required"],"regime_provides":[],"regime_excludes":[],"year_first_reported":1887,"tags":[],"review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"phenomenon:magnetocaloric-effect","type":"phenomenon","name":"Magnetocaloric effect","aliases":[],"domain":"condensed-matter","summary":"Magnetising a paramagnet or ferromagnet adiabatically raises its temperature; demagnetising lowers it. 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Steinfeld"],"year":2005,"venue":"Solar Energy 78, 603-615","doi":"10.1016/j.solener.2003.12.012","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:nichols-hull-1901","type":"paper","title":"A Preliminary Communication on the Pressure of Heat and Light Radiation","authors":["E. F. Nichols","G. F. Hull"],"year":1901,"venue":"Physical Review (Series I) 13, 307-320","doi":"10.1103/PhysRevSeriesI.13.307","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:rosensweig-1985","type":"book","title":"Ferrohydrodynamics","authors":["R. E. Rosensweig"],"year":1985,"venue":"Cambridge University Press","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:otsuka-wayman-1998","type":"book","title":"Shape Memory Materials","authors":["K. Otsuka (ed.)","C. M. Wayman (ed.)"],"year":1998,"venue":"Cambridge University Press","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:zhao-2020-thermo-nanofluidics","type":"paper","title":"pH-regulated thermo-driven nanofluidics for nanoconfined mass transport and energy conversion","authors":["X. Zhao","L. Li","W. Xie","Y. Qian","W. Chen","B. Niu","J. Chen","X.-Y. Kong","L. Jiang","L. Wen"],"year":2020,"venue":"Nanoscale Advances 2, 4070–4076","doi":"10.1039/D0NA00429D","notes":"Open access (PMC9419229). Found by the atlas's first reviewed search; recorded as the demonstration of thermo-osmosis coupling into the streaming potential.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:straub-2016-toec","type":"paper","title":"Harvesting low-grade heat energy using thermo-osmotic vapour transport through nanoporous membranes","authors":["A. P. Straub","N. Y. Yip","S. Lin","J. Lee","M. Elimelech"],"year":2016,"venue":"Nature Energy 1, 16090","doi":"10.1038/nenergy.2016.90","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:boughaleb-2016-bimetal-piezo","type":"paper","title":"Coupling of a bimetallic strip heat engine with a piezoelectric transducer for thermal energy harvesting","authors":["J. Boughaleb","A. Arnaud","S. Monfray","P.-J. Cottinet","S. Quenard","F. Boeuf","D. Guyomar","T. Skotnicki"],"year":2016,"venue":"Molecular Crystals and Liquid Crystals 628, 15–22","doi":"10.1080/15421406.2015.1137390","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:lian-2009-thermomagnetic-pump","type":"paper","title":"Characterization of miniature automatic energy transport devices based on the thermomagnetic effect","authors":["W. Lian","Y. Xuan","Q. Li"],"year":2009,"venue":"Energy Conversion and Management 50, 35–42","doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2008.09.005","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:maggi-2015-thermocapillary-gears","type":"paper","title":"Micromotors with asymmetric shape that efficiently convert light into work by thermocapillary effects","authors":["C. Maggi","F. Saglimbeni","M. Dipalo","F. De Angelis","R. Di Leonardo"],"year":2015,"venue":"Nature Communications 6, 7855","doi":"10.1038/ncomms8855","notes":"Open access. Microfabricated gears on a liquid–air interface rotate at up to 300 r.p.m. under wide-field incoherent illumination through a thermocapillary (Marangoni) effect; the temperature gradient is produced by absorbed light.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:pini-2015-surface-tension-streaming","type":"paper","title":"Energy conversion by surface-tension-driven charge separation","authors":["C. Pini","T. Baier","M. Dietzel"],"year":2015,"venue":"Microfluidics and Nanofluidics 19, 721–735","doi":"10.1007/s10404-015-1597-x","notes":"Theoretical and numerical: the shear-induced streaming potential in free-surface electrolyte flows driven by a surface-tension gradient (thermocapillary or solutocapillary), with the maximal thermal efficiency compared with Carnot. No physical experiment; recorded as a proposal, never as a demonstration.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:chiolerio-2020-thermomagnetic-harvester","type":"paper","title":"Waste heat to power conversion by means of thermomagnetic hydrodynamic energy harvester","authors":["A. Chiolerio","E. Garofalo","F. Mattiussi","M. Crepaldi","G. Fortunato","M. Iovieno"],"year":2020,"venue":"Applied Energy 277, 115591","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115591","notes":"Lab-scale closed-loop toroidal thermomagnetic hydrodynamic harvester: a commercial ferrofluid advects under permanent magnets and Peltier-controlled gradients; induction coils wrapped on the torus extract up to 10.4 μW per kelvin of temperature difference (abstract).","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:zhou-2009-thermomagnetic-engine","type":"paper","title":"A new miniaturized engine based on thermomagnetic effect of magnetic fluids","authors":["L. Zhou","Y. Xuan","Q. Li","W. Lian"],"year":2009,"venue":"Frontiers of Energy and Power Engineering in China 3, 160–166","doi":"10.1007/s11708-009-0018-9","notes":"A permanent NdFeB magnet, a kerosene-based temperature-sensitive magnetic fluid and a rotor: the rotor is driven by the thermomagnetic convection of the fluid in the field; peak angular velocity about 2.1 rad/min, rising with heat input and falling heat-sink temperature (abstract).","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:yalamarthy-2019-phonon-drag","type":"paper","title":"Significant Phonon Drag Enables High Power Factor in the AlGaN/GaN Two-Dimensional Electron Gas","authors":["A. S. Yalamarthy","M. Muñoz Rojo","A. Bruefach","D. Boone","K. M. Dowling","P. F. Satterthwaite","D. Goldhaber-Gordon","E. Pop","D. G. Senesky"],"year":2019,"venue":"Nano Letters 19, 3770–3776","doi":"10.1021/acs.nanolett.9b00901","notes":"Phonon drag treated as a component of the Seebeck coefficient: up to 32 % (88 %) of the Seebeck coefficient at 300 K (50 K) in a ~1.2 μm GaN film, negligible at ~100 nm; power factor up to ~40 mW m⁻¹ K⁻² at 50 K (abstract).","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:yang-2022-pneumatic-piezo-harvester","type":"paper","title":"Design and Experimental Investigation of a Novel Piezoelectric Energy Harvester in Pneumatic System","authors":["C. Yang","W. Shi","C. Chen","Y. Gao","H. Wang"],"year":2022,"venue":"Energy Technology 10, 2200096","doi":"10.1002/ente.202200096","notes":"A sealed piezoelectric harvester on a pneumatic branch pipe captures air-pressure impacts; for a 0 to 0.5 MPa excursion the maximum peak power is 140 μW at 1500 kΩ and the power density 1.43 mW cm⁻³ (abstract).","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:mozumder-2026-wave-impact-piezo","type":"paper","title":"Design and Experimental Validation of a Piezoelectric Impact-Based Energy Harvester for Low-Frequency Oceanic Waves","authors":["I. Mozumder","S. C. Banik"],"year":2026,"venue":"SciEn Conference Series: Engineering 4, 684–687","doi":"10.38032/scse.2026.4.309","notes":"Conference paper. Five vertical pipes with stacked PZT-5A discs struck by impact balls driven by wave motion; laboratory tests at 0.1–2 Hz and 3.5 % salinity gave up to 1.28 V per pipe and about 20 mW per wave event with 70 g steel balls and double-disc stacks (abstract). One laboratory demonstration in a small venue: demonstrated, not replicated.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:frenkel-2019-marangoni-generator","type":"paper","title":"Mini-Generator of Electrical Power Exploiting the Marangoni Flow Inspired Self-Propulsion","authors":["M. Frenkel","A. Vilk","I. Legchenkova","S. Shoval","E. Bormashenko"],"year":2019,"venue":"ACS Omega 4, 15265–15268","doi":"10.1021/acsomega.9b02257","notes":"Open access (PMC6751999). Camphor emitted from floating polymer rotors lowers the water surface tension asymmetrically; the solutocapillary Marangoni stress rotates the rotor, whose permanent magnets induce a current in a stationary 800-turn coil (r = 35 Ω): maximal voltage 1.6 mV across a 35 Ω load, rotation lasting 10–20 h (full text).","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:yang-2025-flexoelectric-harvester","type":"paper","title":"Performance enhancement of flexoelectric energy harvester by structural design","authors":["S. Yang","Q. Yang","C. Zhang","Y. Kong","Y. Li","T. Lu","C. Shen"],"year":2025,"venue":"International Journal of Smart and Nano Materials 16(4), 908–928","doi":"10.1080/19475411.2025.2592544","notes":"Open access (full text read). A two-stage stepped epoxy cantilever with an unpolarised α-PVDF flexoelectric layer (60 × 10 mm, 45 μm) — the authors count it, with Thai et al., among the only pure flexoelectric harvesters tested; on a vibration exciter at 20 Hz and 0.915 g the measured average output was ≈ 0.19 V (theory 0.167 V). The 3.58 V / 94.93 mW m⁻³ at the 1.2 Hz resonance are theory and FEA, not measured: the shaker could not reach 1.2 Hz.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:kumar-2019-vibration-refrigeration","type":"paper","title":"Vibration induced refrigeration using ferroelectric materials","authors":["A. Kumar","A. Chauhan","S. Patel","N. Novak","R. Kumar","R. Vaish"],"year":2019,"venue":"Scientific Reports 9, 3922","doi":"10.1038/s41598-019-40159-8","notes":"Proposal with finite-element analysis (abstract read): a cantilever cooling device with off-axis bulk ferroelectric patches (0.5BZT–0.5BCT) in which ambient vibration stresses the patches elastocalorically; 0.02 K per element at 324 K, 0.2 K in 50 s for ten elements at 1.5 Hz, ≈ 2 K predicted from 358 K. No device was built.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:li-2022-bending-elastocaloric","type":"paper","title":"A compact NiTi elastocaloric air cooler with low force bending actuation","authors":["X. Li","S. Cheng","Q. Sun"],"year":2022,"venue":"Applied Thermal Engineering 215, 118942","doi":"10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2022.118942","notes":"Abstract read (HKUST repository record). Bent NiTi sheets (7.20 % maximum surface strain) transform at a specific driving force of 5.64 N g⁻¹, two orders of magnitude below tension or compression; the single-row cooler with an air duct gave a 5.5 K air-temperature reduction and 0.137 W g⁻¹ specific cooling power, the multi-row cooler 11.5 W.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:xiao-2024-permeate-gap-thermo-osmotic","type":"paper","title":"Permeate gap thermo-osmotic system for simultaneous freshwater production, energy storage, and power generation","authors":["T. Xiao","T. Yan","C. Liu","L. Liu","M. Aziz"],"year":2024,"venue":"Energy Conversion and Management 314, 118636","doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2024.118636","notes":"Full text read (an author-shared copy located through Google Scholar). A 32 cm² permeate-gap module (PTFE, hot feed to 70 °C, cold side 20 °C) pressurises its own permeate without a pump; in layout 1 the permeate rises through a vertical pipe to an elevated tank and the stream released from the tank propelled a small hydro-turbine generator that lit a 2 W-rated bulb — the authors' 'thermal-potential-mechanical energy conversion'. The laboratory head was limited to about 1.5 m; sealed-permeate pressurisation reached a liquid entry pressure of 222 kPa (PTFE with non-woven support); water flux fell 54.25 % from 0 to 200 kPa permeate pressure. No shaft or electrical output figure is reported for the bulb demonstration; the 72-hour fluctuating-source run used a virtual hydro-turbine (0.0065 L h⁻¹), and the 156.75 kW, 0.113 W m⁻² and 1.04 % exergy figures belong to the modelled 150 kW solar case study. For the atlas this is a longer-chain demonstration of the TOEC route: gravitational storage (head conversion) sits between the thermo-osmotic flow and the turbine.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:luo-2023-thermal-osmosis-electrokinetic","type":"paper","title":"Utilization of low-grade heat for desalination and electricity generation through thermal osmosis energy conversion process","authors":["Q. Luo","A. He","S. Xu","M. Miao","T. Liu","B. Cao","K. Shan","B. Tang","X. Hu","L. Huang","H. Jiang"],"year":2023,"venue":"Chemical Engineering Journal 452, 139560","doi":"10.1016/j.cej.2022.139560","notes":"Abstract and introduction read on the publisher's page (online 2022, volume dated 15 January 2023). A PTFE thermal-osmosis unit produces pressurised fresh water on the confined cold side; the pressure-driven flow passes through the microchannels of an electrokinetic module, whose streaming potential is the electrical output: 18.46 kg m⁻² h⁻¹ of fresh water and 1.12 W m⁻² of output power density obtained simultaneously at a temperature difference of 50 °C; real seawater feed; the 1.0 μm PTFE membrane performed best. The authors chose the electrokinetic module because their unit could not sustain the continuous pressurised flow a turbine needs.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:huang-2021-membrane-distiller-electrokinetic","type":"paper","title":"Simultaneous water and electricity harvesting from low-grade heat by coupling a membrane distiller and an electrokinetic power generator","authors":["L. Huang","A. He","M. Miao","J. Pei","T. Liu","X. Lei","et al."],"year":2021,"venue":"Journal of Materials Chemistry A 9, 27709–27717","doi":"10.1039/d1ta07530f","notes":"Metadata and the one-sentence publisher abstract only ('a novel tandem MD-EPG system to harvest low-grade thermal energy … for synergetic water purification and electricity generation'). The earlier demonstration of the same tandem; its figures (13.4 kg m⁻² h⁻¹, 147 μW m⁻² at ΔT = 40 °C across a microporous Al₂O₃ membrane) are known to the atlas only through Xiao et al. 2024's description and are not recorded as measurements.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:luo-2024-hollow-fibre-toec","type":"paper","title":"Thermal-driven osmosis utilizing hollow fiber membranes: Sustainable dye water treatment and electricity extraction","authors":["Q. Luo","L. Huang","P. Yun","T. Qiu","B. Tang","K. Huang","X. Hu","H. Jiang"],"year":2024,"venue":"Desalination 579, 117485","doi":"10.1016/j.desal.2024.117485","notes":"Abstract, highlights and introduction read on the publisher's page; full text paywalled. A hollow-fibre (PVDF, ≈ 0.7 m²) thermo-osmotic module for dye solutions: 'the continuous accumulation of condensed water generates pressure and drives a water turbine for sustainable power generation'; 16.75 W m⁻³ and 70.29 kg m⁻³ h⁻¹ at a 40 °C gradient 'under ideal conditions', alongside a theoretical optimisation model. Whether the turbine's output was physically measured cannot be settled from the abstract.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:kuipers-2014-mempower","type":"paper","title":"Simultaneous production of high-quality water and electrical power from aqueous feedstock's and waste heat by high-pressure membrane distillation","authors":["N. J. M. Kuipers","J. H. Hanemaaijer","H. Brouwer","J. van Medevoort","A. Jansen","F. Altena","P. van der Vleuten","H. Bak"],"year":2015,"venue":"Desalination and Water Treatment 55(10), 2766–2776 (online 2014)","doi":"10.1080/19443994.2014.946724","notes":"Abstract read. TNO's MemPower concept: Memstill membrane distillation run at high hydraulic pressure produces a pressurised distillate from low-grade heat, the proof of principle being vapour transport against a hydraulic pressure gradient; 'power densities have been measured which are sufficient to drive the pumps'. Predates Straub et al. 2016; no turbine is described in the abstract.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:li-2021-stack-toec","type":"paper","title":"Stack Thermo-Osmotic System for Low-Grade Thermal Energy Conversion","authors":["J. Li","Z. Zhang","R. Zhao","B. Zhang","Y. Liang","R. Long","et al."],"year":2021,"venue":"ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 13","doi":"10.1021/acsami.1c03395","notes":"Abstract read. A multistage permeate-gap TOEC that works without pump assistance: 1.39 ± 0.25 W m⁻² at a heating temperature of 80 °C, efficiency rising linearly with the stage number; a 30-stage system at 5.0 MPa is calculated to reach 2.72 % and 14.0 W m⁻². The power density is that of the pressurised flow; no turbine is described.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:zhao-2021-prmd-net-power","type":"paper","title":"Harvesting net power and desalinating water by pressure-retarded membrane distillation","authors":["R. Zhao","J. Li","Z. Zhang","R. Long","W. Liu","Z. Liu"],"year":2021,"venue":"Science China Technological Sciences 64","doi":"10.1007/s11431-021-1926-6","notes":"Abstract read. A multistage PRMD in which the phase-change heat reaches the interface by conduction, cutting pump loss: per m² of heating area, 188 L of fresh water and 27.8 kJ of pressure energy per day between 80 and 40 °C — net positive with low-grade heat as the only input. The 'power' is the pressure energy of the condensate; no turbine is described.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:straub-elimelech-2017-toec-limits","type":"paper","title":"Energy Efficiency and Performance Limiting Effects in Thermo-Osmotic Energy Conversion from Low-Grade Heat","authors":["A. P. Straub","M. Elimelech"],"year":2017,"venue":"Environmental Science & Technology 51(21), 12925–12937","doi":"10.1021/acs.est.7b02213","notes":"Abstract read. The first energy-efficiency analysis of TOEC with vapour-gap membranes and water: an optimised system reaches 4.1 % heat-to-electricity (34 % of Carnot) at 60/20 °C and 5 MPa; lower efficiencies at high power density (> 5 W m⁻²) and with finite heat exchangers; asymmetric pores, pressure resistance, high porosity and 30–100 μm thickness matter most. Model, no experiment.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:zhang-2026-marangoni-hydrovoltaic","type":"paper","title":"Chemical-Gradient-Induced Marangoni Flows Boost Solar-Brine Desalination and Enable Concurrent Power Generation","authors":["J. Zhang","P. Cui","H. Cai","H. Li","Y. Huang","et al."],"year":2026,"venue":"Advanced Functional Materials","doi":"10.1002/adfm.78354","notes":"Abstract read (OpenAlex). A graphene-oxide aerogel evaporator with a longitudinal gradient of oxygen-containing groups: the persistent surface-tension disparity sustains Marangoni microcirculation that co-drives water transport with capillary flow ('a dual-driving transport regime'); 540 kg m⁻³ h⁻¹ (2.7 kg m⁻² h⁻¹) in 20 wt% NaCl under 1 sun for 12 h, with a short-circuit current of 25 μA and an open-circuit voltage of 0.7 V, series devices powering an LED. The electrical contribution of the Marangoni branch is not isolated from the capillary one.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:odukoya-naterer-2013-thermocapillary-mhe","type":"paper","title":"Transient response of thermocapillary pumping of a droplet in a micro heat engine","authors":["A. Odukoya","G. F. Naterer"],"year":2013,"venue":"International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 58, 202–212","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2012.11.009","notes":"Full text read (author copy, Memorial University repository). A micro heat engine fabricated on a PZT substrate with Ti-W microheaters: heat supplied by the heaters drives thermocapillary pumping of a droplet plug along a closed 60 × 60 × 15,000 μm channel, and the plug's pressure is to deflect a piezoelectric membrane. The experiments characterise the microheaters (four-point probe, heat flux 1.2–120 μW m⁻² per channel) and the droplet motion; the membrane deflection, the 1.2–1.3 mV (0.5 mV for a 300 nm membrane) and the ≈ 1.6 % efficiency are simulation results for that geometry, not measurements. Earlier droplet-motion experiments: Odukoya & Naterer 2010; Yang, Odukoya & Naterer 2010.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:glockner-naterer-2007-microfluidic-power","type":"paper","title":"Recent advances in nano-electromechanical and microfluidic power generation","authors":["P. S. Glockner","G. F. Naterer"],"year":2007,"venue":"International Journal of Energy Research 31, 603–618","doi":"10.1002/er.1282","notes":"Abstract read. A review whose centrepiece is the thermocapillary micro heat engine: 'thermocapillary pumping of a discrete droplet in a microchannel converts heat input to droplet motion, then flexing of a piezoelectric membrane to generate electricity'; also microchannel streaming-current batteries and a nano-engine. Found by the Google Scholar mechanism-pair run of 21/09/2026.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:russo-2017-radioluminescent-nuclear-battery","type":"paper","title":"A radioluminescent nuclear battery using volumetric configuration: 63Ni solution/ZnS:Cu,Al/InGaP","authors":["J. Russo","M. Litz","W. B. Ray","B. A. Smith","R. L. Moyers"],"year":2017,"venue":"Applied Radiation and Isotopes 130, 66–74","doi":"10.1016/j.apradiso.2017.09.018","notes":"Abstract and highlights read on the publisher's page (an OSTI copy exists, 1820702). A beta-photovoltaic nuclear battery: ⁶³Ni in chloride solution mixed with ZnS:Cu,Al phosphor (volumetric configuration) converts the β⁻ energy to light, and an InGaP photovoltaic cell matched to the radioluminescence spectrum converts the light to electricity; with 15 mCi the total power-conversion efficiency reached 0.289 % (0.0638 % for the planar configuration), and the highest electrical power was 3.35 nW cm⁻² at 30 mCi.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:chan-2013-microthermophotovoltaic","type":"paper","title":"Toward high-energy-density, high-efficiency, and moderate-temperature chip-scale thermophotovoltaics","authors":["W. R. Chan","P. Bermel","R. C. N. Pilawa-Podgurski","C. H. Marton","K. F. Jensen","J. J. Senkevich","J. D. Joannopoulos","M. Soljačić","I. Celanovic"],"year":2013,"venue":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110(14), 5309–5314","doi":"10.1073/pnas.1301004110","notes":"Abstract read (open access; OSTI 1386838). The μTPV generator: a silicon propane microcombustor, an integrated high-temperature photonic-crystal selective thermal emitter, four 0.55 eV GaInAsSb thermophotovoltaic diodes and a maximum-power-point-tracking converter; operated to 800 °C combustor temperature with 13.7 W of thermal input, generating 344 mW of electric power over a 1 cm² area — 2.5 % measured against a 2.7 % prediction for the simplified system (up to 32 % predicted for the full design).","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:glockner-naterer-2006-thermocapillary-pumping","type":"paper","title":"Surface tension and frictional resistance of thermocapillary pumping in a closed microchannel","authors":["P. S. Glockner","G. F. Naterer"],"year":2006,"venue":"International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 49(23–24), 4424–4436","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2006.05.005","notes":"Metadata verified on OpenAlex; cited by Odukoya & Naterer 2013 as the earlier analytical model of thermocapillary pumping of a droplet in a closed microchannel (surface tension and friction), which over-predicted the measured displacement. Not read; recorded as the theory behind the confined-plug regime.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:asim-2022-pico-waterwheel","type":"paper","title":"Design and Parametric Optimization of the High-Speed Pico Waterwheel for Rural Electrification of Pakistan","authors":["M. Asim","S. Muhammad","M. Amjad","M. Abdullah","M. A. Mujtaba","M. A. Kalam","et al."],"year":2022,"venue":"Sustainability 14(11), 6930","doi":"10.3390/su14116930","notes":"Open access, read on the publisher's page and again on the MDPI XML (pass 45 close). A pico waterwheel (C-, V- and straight blades; CFD and experiment) tested in an irrigation-channel rig; the '72–77 %' undershot range and the overshot '85 %' in its Introduction are prior literature (its references 13–14), not its measurements; its own result is Section 4.9: the C-shape turbine at 4 inches immersion on a 3 kW generator at full load 'achieved an overall efficiency of 66.42%', η_overall = P_out / P_in with P_out = v_g·i_g (Equations 12–13); 'the turbine was connected to a 3 kilowatt (kW) electrical generator, and the voltage and current were measured at full load conditions', the load being three 100 W bulbs, two 120 W fans and a 1 kW cutting machine. Installation needs channel velocities above 3 m/s and a head of about 1.5 m.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:iwakiri-2026-thermopolarization","type":"preprint","title":"Observation of universal thermopolarization effect in insulators","authors":["S. Iwakiri","Y. Miyata","T. Mori"],"year":2026,"venue":"arXiv:2605.17224 (17 May 2026), National Institute for Materials Science, Tsukuba","url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/2605.17224","notes":"Preprint, not peer-reviewed; read in full. An on-chip heater driven at 1 kHz imposes a temperature gradient (≈ 0.5 K modulation) across 0.25–1 mm substrates; the non-uniform thermal expansion's strain gradient produces an out-of-plane flexoelectric polarization, detected as a second-harmonic voltage and as the screening current in a detector electrode, in MgO, Al₂O₃, MnO, mica, PET, PEN, polyimide and soda-lime glass; the heat-to-charge ratio collapses onto one trend against the coefficient of thermal expansion, reproduced by finite-element thermo-mechanics; 1/thickness scaling and an order-of-magnitude enhancement at the glass and antiferromagnetic transitions. No load is driven and no output power is reported: the composition observed, the work not extracted.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:han-2026-dual-mode-flexoelectric-nanogenerator","type":"paper","title":"Dual-Mode Flexoelectric Nanogenerators Activated by Light and Heat for Broad-Spectral Photodetection and Thermal Response","authors":["G. Han","A. Berbille","Y. Zhang","X. Luo","L. Li","L.-D. Liu","Z. L. Wang","L. Zhu"],"year":2026,"venue":"Advanced Functional Materials 36 (49), e75910","doi":"10.1002/adfm.75910","notes":"Abstract read on the publisher's page (full text paywalled; owner read requested). A heterojunction-based flexoelectric nanogenerator driven by light and heat with no external mechanical or electrical input: under illumination or temperature variation the heterojunction components deform differentially, producing an interfacial strain gradient that drives flexoelectric polarization and flexo-photovoltaic currents; photodetection mode 250–600 nm with peak responsivity 2.2 mA W⁻¹; thermal response mode with an effective pyroelectric coefficient up to 7518 μC m⁻² K⁻¹. The accessible record reports current responses, not a load curve or output power, and describes the thermal driver as a temperature variation (differential deformation of the two components), so whether the imposed field is the route's spatial temperature gradient is unverified.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:wei-2024-thermoflexoelectric-pn-junction","type":"paper","title":"Exact solutions for thermally induced electromechanical fields of PN junctions in centrosymmetric semiconductors","authors":["C. Wei","Z. Guo","J. Tang","W. Huang"],"year":2024,"venue":"Journal of Applied Physics 136 (4), 045703","doi":"10.1063/5.0218259","notes":"Abstract read (hybrid open access). Theory: defines the thermoflexoelectric effect — temperature gradients generate inhomogeneous strains and further induce flexoelectric polarizations — and solves a one-dimensional PN-junction model under a temperature gradient, showing the temperature-gradient-induced flexoelectric field tunes the potential barrier. Recorded as the source of the thermoflexoelectric alias; not an experiment.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:yurkov-2019-flexoelectric-inhomogeneous-heating","type":"paper","title":"Flexoelectric polarization induced by inhomogeneous heating and implications for energy harvesting","authors":["A. S. Yurkov","A. Dejneka","P. V. Yudin"],"year":2019,"venue":"International Journal of Solids and Structures 162, 96–104","doi":"10.1016/j.ijsolstr.2018.12.003","notes":"Abstract read on the publisher's page (open archive). Theory by variational principles of the polarization response of an inhomogeneously heated thin plate; the authors estimate that the effect could convert waste heat into electric power at up to tens of watts per kilogram of flexoelectric material — a calculated bound, no device. A citation-chase seed for the route.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:yazaki-1998-travelling-wave-tae","type":"paper","title":"Traveling Wave Thermoacoustic Engine in a Looped Tube","authors":["T. Yazaki","A. Iwata","T. Maekawa","A. Tominaga"],"year":1998,"venue":"Physical Review Letters 81, 3128–3131","doi":"10.1103/PhysRevLett.81.3128","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref. The first travelling-wave thermoacoustic engine: a looped tube in which the acoustic wave circulates with a non-zero time-averaged acoustic power flux, as distinct from the standing wave of a straight resonator.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:backhaus-swift-2000","type":"paper","title":"A thermoacoustic-Stirling heat engine: Detailed study","authors":["S. Backhaus","G. W. Swift"],"year":2000,"venue":"Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 107, 3148–3166","doi":"10.1121/1.429343","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref. The detailed study of the travelling-wave (Stirling-cycle) thermoacoustic engine of Backhaus & Swift 1999 (Nature 399, 335: 710 W of acoustic power at 30 % thermal efficiency, ≈ 30 bar helium, ≈ 80 Hz) — the regime in which the engine's wave carries directed acoustic power.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:weinreich-1957-attenuation","type":"paper","title":"Ultrasonic Attenuation by Free Carriers in Germanium","authors":["G. Weinreich"],"year":1957,"venue":"Physical Review 107, 317–318","doi":"10.1103/PhysRev.107.317.2","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref. The Weinreich relation: the acoustoelectric field (current) is tied to the ultrasonic attenuation the free carriers cause — momentum lost by the wave is transferred to the carriers.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:weinreich-sanders-white-1959","type":"paper","title":"Acoustoelectric Effect in n-Type Germanium","authors":["G. Weinreich","T. M. Sanders","H. G. White"],"year":1959,"venue":"Physical Review 114, 33–44","doi":"10.1103/PhysRev.114.33","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref. Theory and measurement of the acoustoelectric drag of electrons by a travelling ultrasonic wave in arsenic-doped n-type germanium (the second reader: donor concentrations of order 10¹⁴–10¹⁶ cm⁻³, 20–160 K), the quantitative validation of the Weinreich relation; the carrier-related attenuation was small enough to be hard to measure.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:zheng-2022-thermoacoustic-pan","type":"paper","title":"Thermoacoustic energy harvesting using thermally-stabilized polyacrylonitrile nanofibers","authors":["Y. Zheng","W. Wang","J. Niu","X. Jin","Y. Sun","L. Peng","W. Li","H. Wang","T. Lin"],"year":2022,"venue":"Nano Energy 95, 106995","doi":"10.1016/j.nanoen.2022.106995","notes":"Abstract read on the publisher's page. Thermally stabilised electrospun PAN nanofibre membranes convert sound into electricity piezoelectrically up to 450 °C: under mono-frequency sound (118 dB, 230 Hz) a 3 × 3 cm² device gives 118 V open-circuit and 12 μA short-circuit (392 mW m⁻²); driven in situ by a mini thermoacoustic engine, with the device at 280 °C, peak outputs of 102 V and 10 μA ran 30 LEDs and charged a lithium battery and a capacitor, stable for at least 2 h. The authors' word 'acoustoelectric' names piezoelectric acoustic-to-electric conversion, not Weinreich carrier drag.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:atashbar-2026-graphene-pmn-pt","type":"paper","title":"Observation of giant acoustoelectric currents in graphene on lead magnesium niobate–lead titanate","authors":["M. Atashbar","H. Mansoorzare","T. Jabegu","S. Lei","M. Galanko Klemash","S. Bedair","R. Abdolvand"],"year":2026,"venue":"Nature Communications 17, 8932","doi":"10.1038/s41467-026-74813-3","notes":"Open access, abstract and results read. Interdigitated transducers on (111)-cut PMN–PT launch a surface acoustic wave through monolayer graphene: the acoustoelectric current reaches 90.39 μA and the open-circuit voltage 341.72 mV at 20 dBm RF input with a 50 V gate (17 μA and 225 mV ungated), an acoustoelectric responsivity of 7.66 μA/(W·MHz). The travelling solid-state wave is launched electrically, not by heat.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:smoker-2012-thermoacoustic-piezoelectric","type":"paper","title":"Energy harvesting from a standing wave thermoacoustic-piezoelectric resonator","authors":["J. Smoker","M. Nouh","O. Aldraihem","A. Baz"],"year":2012,"venue":"Journal of Applied Physics 111, 104901","doi":"10.1063/1.4712630","notes":"Abstract read (Crossref). A one-dimensional thermoacoustic-piezoelectric resonator: a steep temperature gradient along an optimally placed porous stack drives self-sustained acoustic waves whose pressure fluctuations excite a piezoelectric diaphragm at the far end, converting acoustic to electrical energy with no moving parts; predicted with DeltaEC and validated on a small prototype (infrared temperature field, PIV flow field, microphone array, conversion efficiency). No output figures in the abstract.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:li-2026-thermoacoustic-teng","type":"paper","title":"High-temperature energy harvesting via thermoacoustic-triboelectric hybridization: Design, modelling, and application demonstration","authors":["Y. Li","Y. Wang","H. Tang","L. Dong","B. Ning","G. Chen","G. Hu"],"year":2026,"venue":"Nano Energy 155, 112082","doi":"10.1016/j.nanoen.2026.112082","notes":"Abstract read on the publisher's page. A piston-assisted thermoacoustic engine integrated with a honeycomb-structured freestanding contact-separation triboelectric nanogenerator: a nonlinear CFD model of the onset; stable self-sustained oscillations at heating temperatures around 150 °C; peak power 0.49 mW at 80 MΩ; four stacked units charge 1 μF to 17.05 V in 10 s; with power management the harvested energy runs a wireless temperature sensor.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:ahmed-2025-thermoacoustic-liquid-metal-teng","type":"paper","title":"Time-domain modeling and experimental validation of an integrated thermoacoustic-liquid metal triboelectric nanogenerator","authors":["F. Ahmed","G. Yu","A. Zou","E. Luo"],"year":2025,"venue":"Energy 334, 137745","doi":"10.1016/j.energy.2025.137745","notes":"Abstract read on the publisher's page. A thermoacoustic heat engine (self-sustained oscillation at 15 Hz, up to 31.3 W acoustic under 300 W heat input) integrated with a mercury–Kapton sliding-mode triboelectric nanogenerator: 18.8 V open-circuit and 3.2 μA short-circuit for one layer, 0.1 W m⁻² and 10.5 mA m⁻² with 32 stacked layers; a lumped acoustic-electric time-domain model validated on the experiment (onset temperature within 82.9 %). No solid moving parts — a gas–liquid boundary, physically distinct from the piston-coupled device.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:marvan-1969-thermopolarization","type":"paper","title":"The electric polarization induced by temperature gradient and associated thermoelectric effects","authors":["M. Marvan"],"year":1969,"venue":"Czechoslovak Journal of Physics B 19, 1240–1245","doi":"10.1007/bf01690309","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref. The first phenomenological prediction of a polarization induced by a temperature gradient in a dielectric, credited by Tagantsev's 1987 review.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:kholkin-1982-thermopolarization-current","type":"paper","title":"Thermopolarization currents in dielectrics","authors":["A. L. Kholkin","V. A. Trepakov","G. A. Smolenskii"],"year":1982,"venue":"JETP Letters 35 (3), 124–127 (Pis'ma Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz. 35, 103–106)","url":"http://www.jetpletters.ru/ps/1313/article_19837.shtml","notes":"Read in full from the JETP Letters archive (four pages). Pure, undoped PbMg₁/₃Nb₂/₃O₃ single crystals — centrosymmetric and paraelectric above 273 K, resistivity ~10¹⁴ Ω·cm — cut as 3 × 3 × 8 mm parallelepipeds with Degus-paste electrodes on the long faces; one end at room temperature, the other heated, in vacuum ≈ 10⁻³ Torr. The external-circuit current density follows the rate of change of the end-to-end temperature difference (ΔT up to ≈ 55 K over 8 mm), reverses when the sign of ∇T is reversed (unlike the pyroelectric current of the sample's random unipolarity, which does not), and its maximum is linear in d(ΔT)/dt (Fig. 2), the slope giving a thermopolarization coefficient B₁₁ ≈ 3 × 10⁻¹² C/(cm·K), a polarization of order 10⁻¹⁰ C/cm² at T = 310 K and ∇T = 30 K/cm; Gurevich's estimate B₁₁ ≈ 10⁻¹³ C/(cm·K) is of the same order. The authors attribute the current to the direct thermopolarization effect of Gurevich's theory; a thermal-expansion strain-gradient (flexoelectric) contribution is not considered, so the letter does not by itself separate the two mechanisms.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:tagantsev-1987-thermal-polarization","type":"review","title":"Pyroelectric, piezoelectric, flexoelectric, and thermal polarization effects in ionic crystals","authors":["A. K. Tagantsev"],"year":1987,"venue":"Soviet Physics Uspekhi 30, 588–603","doi":"10.1070/PU1987v030n07ABEH002926","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref. The review that treats the polarization response to a temperature gradient (the thermal polarization effect) as a response distinct from flexoelectricity (the response to a strain gradient), crediting Marvan's 1969 formulation; the definition the atlas's thermopolarization phenomenon rests on. Distinct from Tagantsev 1986 (Phys. Rev. B 34, 5883), the atlas's flexoelectric chase seed.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:trepakov-1989-proper-thermopolarization","type":"paper","title":"Recent developments of the thermopolarization effect investigation","authors":["V. A. Trepakov","K. M. Nurieva","A. K. Tagantsev"],"year":1989,"venue":"Ferroelectrics 94, 377–381","doi":"10.1080/00150198908014283","notes":"Abstract read on OpenAlex. The thermopolarization effect measured in centrosymmetric SrTiO₃ and KTaO₃ and in piezoelectric KH₂PO₄ single crystals 'in spite of the tertiary pyroeffect competition', with criteria separating a 'proper' (non-flexoelectric) thermopolarization from the flexoelectric contribution and experimental evidence for the proper effect. Full text not yet read.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:rafikov-1994-dynamic-thermopolarization","type":"paper","title":"Frequency and temperature dependence of the thermopolarization response in dynamic investigations","authors":["E. Rafikov","A. Savinov","L. Jastrabík","V. A. Trepakov"],"year":1994,"venue":"physica status solidi (a) 144, 471–477","doi":"10.1002/pssa.2211440228","notes":"Abstract read on OpenAlex. The dynamic thermopolarization response of paraelectric PbNi₁/₃Nb₂/₃O₃ and PbMg₁/₃Nb₂/₃O₃ measured in low- and high-frequency regimes: ∝ ω^½ and inversely proportional to thickness at low frequency, ∝ ω^−½ and thickness-independent at high frequency, the low-frequency temperature dependence following the bulk susceptibility — consistent with the thermopolarization theory.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:onishi-2025-thermopolarization","type":"paper","title":"Theory of Thermopolarization Effect","authors":["Y. Onishi","H. Isobe","A. Shitade","N. Nagaosa"],"year":2025,"venue":"Nano Letters 25, 2763–2768","doi":"10.1021/acs.nanolett.4c05870","notes":"Abstract read on OpenAlex. The polarization response of an insulator to a temperature gradient described through the free-energy response to an electric-field gradient (the Q tensor): a unified description of polarization responses to electric fields and temperature gradients, a generalized Mott relation, an analogy with the anomalous Hall and Nernst effects; observable as a Seebeck-like signal when the sample is shorter than the screening length. Modern linear-response theory of the direct effect.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:nasu-2022-antisymmetric-thermopolarization","type":"paper","title":"Antisymmetric thermopolarization by electric toroidicity","authors":["J. Nasu","S. Hayami"],"year":2022,"venue":"Physical Review B 105, 245125","doi":"10.1103/PhysRevB.105.245125","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref. A modern theory in which the thermopolarization tensor acquires an antisymmetric part from electric toroidicity — the thermopolarization tensor as an active independent concept.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:williams-1971-gas-core-reactor-mhd","type":"paper","title":"An evaluation of gas core reactors with MHD conversion for clean, economical power generation","authors":["J. R. Williams"],"year":1971,"venue":"AIAA paper 71-1510, Joint Conference on Sensing of Environmental Pollutants","doi":"10.2514/6.1971-1510","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; title-level. Names the coupled concept — a gas-core reactor with MHD conversion — as one device; provenance for the composition term.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:kien-harada-2006-nfr-mhd","type":"paper","title":"Studies on Low Specific Mass NFR/MHD Power Generation System for Space Applications","authors":["L. C. Kien","N. Harada"],"year":2006,"venue":"Transactions of the Japan Society for Aeronautical and Space Sciences 49, 109–116","doi":"10.2322/tjsass.49.109","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; title-level. A nuclear-fission-reactor / MHD power-generation system study; provenance for the composition term NFR/MHD power generation.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:anghaie-2002-gaseous-core-reactor-mhd","type":"report","title":"Direct Energy Conversion Fission Reactor, Gaseous Core Reactor with Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Generator; Final Report - Part I and Part II","authors":["S. Anghaie","B. Smith","T. Knight"],"year":2002,"venue":"US DOE (OSTI 850575)","doi":"10.2172/850575","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; title-level. A DOE final report on the gaseous-core reactor with an MHD generator as a direct-energy-conversion fission reactor; provenance for the composition term.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:latham-rodgers-1972-nuclear-light-bulb","type":"paper","title":"Small nuclear light bulb engines with cold beryllium reflectors","authors":["T. S. Latham","R. J. Rodgers"],"year":1972,"venue":"AIAA paper 72-1093, 8th Joint Propulsion Specialist Conference","doi":"10.2514/6.1972-1093","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; title-level. Uses the field's name for the gaseous-fissioning-uranium radiant source behind a transparent wall; provenance for the composition term nuclear light bulb (the second reader also points to Kendall & Stoeffler 1972, NASA CR-129298).","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:schneider-thom-1975-fissioning-uranium-plasmas","type":"review","title":"Fissioning Uranium Plasmas and Nuclear-Pumped Lasers","authors":["R. T. Schneider","K. Thom"],"year":1975,"venue":"Nuclear Technology 27, 34–50","doi":"10.13182/NT75-A15934","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; title-level. The NASA uranium-plasma programme's review: fissioning uranium plasma as a radiant source and pump for lasers; provenance for the broad composition terms gas-core / gaseous-core / plasma-core reactor.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:lee-1974-fissioning-uranium-plasma","type":"paper","title":"Production of Fissioning Uranium Plasma to Approximate Gas-Core Reactor Conditions","authors":["J. H. Lee","D. R. McFarland","F. Hohl","K. Kim"],"year":1974,"venue":"Nuclear Technology 22, 306–314","doi":"10.13182/NT74-A31415","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; title-level. A fissioning uranium plasma physically produced to approximate gas-core reactor conditions; provenance for the broad composition term fissioning uranium plasma.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:bresme-2008-water-polarization","type":"paper","title":"Water Polarization under Thermal Gradients","authors":["F. Bresme","A. Lervik","D. Bedeaux","S. Kjelstrup"],"year":2008,"venue":"Physical Review Letters 101, 020602","doi":"10.1103/PhysRevLett.101.020602","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; abstract read on OpenAlex. Non-equilibrium molecular dynamics of bulk liquid water under a temperature gradient: the gradient polarizes the water along itself through molecular reorientation, giving an electrostatic field whose dependence on the gradient agrees with non-equilibrium thermodynamics; gradients of order 10⁸ K/m are estimated to give fields of order 10⁶ V/m. Simulation, no experiment — the first evidence of the liquid spelling.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:armstrong-bresme-2015-thermal-polarization-inversion","type":"paper","title":"Temperature inversion of the thermal polarization of water","authors":["J. Armstrong","F. Bresme"],"year":2015,"venue":"Physical Review E 92, 060103","doi":"10.1103/PhysRevE.92.060103","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; abstract read on OpenAlex. NEMD: the thermal polarization of water depends strongly on temperature and reverses sign at a specific temperature, the balance of dipolar and quadrupolar contributions with the quadrupolar term set by thermal expansion. Simulation.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:gittus-2020-acetonitrile-thermal-polarization","type":"paper","title":"Polarization of acetonitrile under thermal fields via non-equilibrium molecular dynamics simulations","authors":["O. R. Gittus","P. Albella","F. Bresme"],"year":2020,"venue":"The Journal of Chemical Physics 153, 204503","doi":"10.1063/5.0025148","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; abstract read on OpenAlex. NEMD: thermal gradients polarize liquid and supercritical acetonitrile, a stationary electrostatic potential building up between hot and cold regions; near standard conditions the thermal polarization coefficient is ≈ −0.6 mV/K, so gradients of ≈ 1 K/µm give fields of ≈ 10³ V/m; the heat–polarization coupling lowers the thermal conductivity by ≈ 2–5 %. Simulation, a second polar liquid.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:mathe-2022-ferroelectric-nematic-thermomotor","type":"paper","title":"Ferroelectric nematic liquid crystal thermomotor","authors":["M. T. Máthé","Á. Buka","A. Jákli","P. Salamon"],"year":2022,"venue":"Physical Review E 105, L052701","doi":"10.1103/PhysRevE.105.L052701","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; abstract read on OpenAlex. A physical experiment: tracer particles on ferroelectric-nematic sessile drops circulate under a vertical thermal gradient; the authors' model drives the rotation with the tangential ferroelectric polarization, the vertical gradient and the pyroelectricity of the fluid, the particles charging in the fluid. The nearest physical liquid experiment found in pass 32 — the temperature dependence of an already ordered polarization (pyroelectricity), not the gradient-induced polarization of a polar liquid: wrong coupling for the liquid thermopolarization claim.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:marvan-fahnrich-1997-limm-thermopolarization","type":"paper","title":"Laser Intensity Modulation Method and Thermal Gradient Induced Polarization","authors":["M. Marvan","J. Fähnrich"],"year":1997,"venue":"physica status solidi (a) 163, 263–270","doi":"10.1002/1521-396X(199709)163:1<263::AID-PSSA263>3.0.CO;2-T","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; abstract read on OpenAlex. The contribution of the thermopolarization effect (P ∝ ∇T) to the signal of the laser intensity modulation method was studied theoretically, shown to be large enough to observe, and compared with the pyroelectric signal. Theory by the effect's first theorist — not an experiment in polymer films.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:lu-2024-otec-platform","type":"paper","title":"Design and Experimental Study of 50 kW Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Test Platform Based on Organic Rankine Cycle","authors":["B. Lu","Y. Liu","X. Zhai","L. Zhang","Y. Chen"],"year":2024,"venue":"Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 12, 463","doi":"10.3390/jmse12030463","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; full text read (open access). A land-based 50 kW R134a organic-Rankine OTEC test platform at Shandong University with a heat-pump unit simulating the warm and cold seawater. Design (engineering-calibration) point: 28 °C heat source, 4 °C cold source, thermal efficiency 2.63 %, turbine output 50.3 kW (Table 2 check values: warm seawater 191.49 kg/s, cold 183.93 kg/s, working fluid 7.648 kg/s, evaporator 1608.56 kW, condenser 1545.68 kW; Table 1 state points ≈ 24.6 °C / 645.8 kPa evaporation, ≈ 8 °C / 387.6 kPa condensation). Experiment: the conclusion states the simulation system ran the heat source at 24–28 °C and the cold source at 4–8 °C, Figure 11 shows the warm water at ≈ 27.5–30.5 °C and the cold water at ≈ 4.5–7 °C over the 6000 s run with the flows stepped from ≈ 530 to ≈ 740 m³/h; the maximum grid-connected power is 47.4 kW (47.5 kW in the abstract) and the actual thermal efficiency 2.46 % (Figure 12). The paper prints no temperature pair for the operating point of the experimental efficiency.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:shaheed-2023-al-mosyab","type":"paper","title":"Evaluation Performance of the Steam Power Plant in Iraq Based on Energy and Exergy Analysis","authors":["H. R. Shaheed","H. N. Mohammed","R. M. Radhi"],"year":2023,"venue":"International Journal of Heat and Technology 41, 253–258","doi":"10.18280/ijht.410128","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; full text read (open PDF). Energy and exergy analysis of Unit 3 of the Al-Mosyab thermal power station (Iraq, completed 1990, four 300 MW units, running at ≈ 65 % of rated capacity) at 225 MW load, solved in Engineering Equation Solver from the unit's readings — Table 1: main steam 168 kg/s at 152 bar and 539 °C, crude-oil fuel 14.68 kg/s at NCV 10,074 kcal/kg, condenser 0.1 bar, cooling water 24 °C, 3000 rpm (design, Table 2: 300 MW, 170 bar, 538 °C, 0.0653 bar, 23 °C; the model reproduces the design point within 1.33 %). Results (Table 4): cycle thermal efficiency 39.3 %, second-law efficiency 34.91 %, exergy destruction 412.68 MW, boiler thermal efficiency 94 %; the text quotes 39.91 % and Figure 2's condenser-pressure sweep runs from 39.39 % at 0.06 bar to 37.97 % at 0.24 bar. The efficiency is a first-law computation of the readings, not a metered figure.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:al-mhanna-2024-isccs","type":"paper","title":"Simulation and Energy Analysis of Integrated Solar Combined Cycle Systems (ISCCS) Using Aspen Plus","authors":["N. M. Al Mhanna","I. Al Hadidi","S. Al Maskari"],"year":2024,"venue":"Energies 17, 3986","doi":"10.3390/en17163986","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; full text read (open access). An Aspen Plus model of one gas-turbine train of a 678 MW combined-cycle station in Oman (three gas turbines, two steam turbines), validated against the plant's data before a parabolic-trough integration is simulated. Table 2 (plant inputs): air 505.36 kg/s at 26.6 °C and 0.9981 bar, compressor discharge 9.4 bar (isentropic efficiency 0.883), natural-gas fuel 9.2 kg/s at 22.8 bar and 15.6 °C (LHV 43,662 kJ/kg; 92.5 % methane), turbine discharge 1 bar (isentropic efficiency 0.85), HRSG feed 235,400 + 40,000 kg/h. Table 3 (local plant data vs simulation): gas-turbine work output 127 MW (126.45), steam-turbine work output 61.5 MW (59.47), gas-turbine inlet 1050 °C (1010.46), exhaust 540.7 °C (556.93), efficiency 46.93 % (46.28) — the efficiency is the combined cycle's: (127 + 61.5) MW over 9.2 kg/s × 43,662 kJ/kg = 401.7 MW reproduces 46.93 % exactly.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:cheng-2018-pec-19-percent","type":"paper","title":"Monolithic Photoelectrochemical Device for Direct Water Splitting with 19% Efficiency","authors":["W.-H. Cheng","M. H. Richter","M. M. May","J. Ohlmann","D. Lackner","F. Dimroth","T. Hannappel","H. A. Atwater","H.-J. Lewerenz"],"year":2018,"venue":"ACS Energy Letters 3, 1795–1800","doi":"10.1021/acsenergylett.8b00920","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; abstract read on OpenAlex; the full text read on the arXiv version 1706.01493 (loop-3 pass 46). A monolithic tandem photocathode — Ga₀.₄₁In₀.₅₉P / Ga₀.₈₉In₀.₁₁As dual-junction absorber with bandgaps 1.78 eV / 1.26 eV grown by metal-organic vapour-phase epitaxy, a crystalline TiO₂ interlayer by atomic-layer deposition, Rh nanoparticle catalyst — reaching solar-to-hydrogen efficiencies of 19.3 % in acidic perchlorate electrolyte and 18.5 % at pH 7 under simulated AM 1.5G, unassisted. 'With the energy bandgap combination (GaInP/GaInAs with 1.78 eV/1.26 eV), a theoretical efficiency of 22.8 % under AM 1.5G conditions can be reached, assuming 100 % above bandgap absorption and 100 % external radiative efficiency (ERE)', in the SQwater framework of Fountaine, Lewerenz & Atwater 2016 (Figure 1c: catalytic exchange current density {1, 10⁻³} mA cm⁻², R_S = 0, R_SH = ∞); Table S1: STH 19.3 %, SQwater 22.8 %, ratio 0.85 for this work.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:nicol-2015-ieaccc-double-reheat","type":"report","title":"Application and development prospects of double-reheat coal-fired power units","authors":["K. Nicol"],"year":2015,"venue":"IEA Clean Coal Centre, CCC/255, ISBN 978-92-9029-577-8","url":"https://usea.org/sites/default/files/media/Application%20and%20development%20prospects%20of%20double-reheat%20coal-fired%20power%20units%20-%20ccc255.pdf","notes":"Read in full (open PDF hosted by USEA). Section 7.2.6: Nordjylland unit 3 (415 MWe, commissioned 1998, once-through USC Benson tower boiler, double reheat, 580 °C / 580 °C / 580 °C at 29 MPa) 'reaches 47% net electrical efficiency (LHV) in power only mode, and is currently (Dec 2014) the world's most efficient PCC unit' (citing Morrison 2011, Poulsen & Bendixen 2006, Vattenfall 2014); low-temperature (10 °C) seawater cooling, high superheat and double reheat named as the reasons. Table 4 (Poulsen & Bendixen 2006, 2005 results): power-only mode at 100 % load, condensing, 10 °C cooling water — generator 411 MWe, auxiliaries 26 MWe, 385 MWe to the 400 kV grid, boiler efficiency 94.2 %, heat rate 7151.4 kJ/kWh on generator output, thermal efficiency (400 kV to grid) 47.2 %; CHP mode 339.5 MWe + 422 MJ/s district heat, 90 % total. The table labels the coal's 26 MJ/kg a gross calorific value while the text gives the fuel as 25.2 MJ/kg LHV / 26.4 MJ/kg HHV, so the 47.2 % row's basis is not unambiguous; the 47 % (LHV, net, power-only) statement of §7.2.6 is the figure the atlas records.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:nrc-boiling-water-reactors","type":"web","title":"Boiling Water Reactors — how a typical commercial BWR works","authors":["U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission"],"year":2025,"venue":"nrc.gov","url":"https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/power/bwrs","notes":"Read in full (21/09/2026). 'A steam-water mixture is produced when very pure water (reactor coolant) moves upward through the core, absorbing heat. The steam-water mixture leaves the top of the core and enters the two stages of moisture separation before the steam is allowed to enter the steamline', which directs it to the main turbine; the condensate is pumped, reheated and returned to the reactor vessel. The direct-boiling topology: the reactor coolant itself is the turbine's steam.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:nrc-pressurized-water-reactors","type":"web","title":"Pressurized Water Reactors — how a typical commercial PWR works","authors":["U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission"],"year":2025,"venue":"nrc.gov","url":"https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/power/pwrs","notes":"Read in full (21/09/2026). 'Pressurized water in the primary coolant loop carries the heat to the steam generator. Inside the steam generator, heat from the primary coolant loop vaporizes the water in a secondary loop, producing steam', which the steamline directs to the main turbine. The two-circuit topology: fission heats a pressurised liquid, and a heat exchanger — not the core — makes the turbine's steam.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:brown-1977-nasa-cr-135194","type":"report","title":"Electronic and mechanical improvement of the receiving terminal of a free-space microwave power transmission system","authors":["W. C. Brown"],"year":1977,"venue":"NASA CR-135194 (Raytheon Company, contract NAS3-19722), NASA Technical Reports Server 19770024669","url":"https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19770024669","notes":"Read in full (open NTRS PDF, loop-3 pass 39). The rectenna element improved under the study (higher-impedance microwave circuit, higher DC load resistance, improved diodes) reached 'an efficiency of 90.5 ± 0.5 % at the 8 watt input level and 79.5 ± 0.5 % at the 50 milliwatt level', and 45 % at 1 mW, at 2450 MHz; the certified overall DC-to-DC transmission efficiency of March 1975 at Raytheon was 54 %; the Goldstone demonstration converted over 82 % of the microwave power impinging on a 264 ft² rectenna into over 30 kW of DC over 1.6 km. The 90.6 % the later reviews quote is not in this report — its own element figure is 90.5 ± 0.5 %.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:doe-hdbk-1012-2-92","type":"report","title":"DOE Fundamentals Handbook: Thermodynamics, Heat Transfer, and Fluid Flow, Volume 2 of 3 (DOE-HDBK-1012/2-92)","authors":["U.S. Department of Energy"],"year":1992,"venue":"DOE-HDBK-1012/2-92, June 1992","url":"https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2026-04/DOE-HDBK-1012-92_VOL2.pdf","notes":"Read (open PDF on energy.gov, loop-3 pass 41). 'Convection involves the transfer of heat by the motion and mixing of macroscopic portions of a fluid … The term natural convection is used if this motion and mixing is caused by density variations resulting from temperature differences within the fluid. The term forced convection is used if this motion and mixing is caused by an outside force, such as a pump. … The transfer of heat from the surface of a heat exchanger to the bulk of a fluid being pumped through the heat exchanger is an example of forced convection.'","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:nasa-lewis-mhd-tech-preview","type":"report","title":"Lewis Tech Preview: Research Nonequilibrium MHD Power Generator Facility","authors":["NASA Lewis Research Center","Electromagnetic Propulsion Division"],"venue":"NASA Lewis Research Center tech preview N-422 67/11-39 (one page; the date is not printed beyond that document code)","url":"https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/MHD-Power-Generator-Facility-Tech-Preview.pdf","notes":"Read (open PDF on grc.nasa.gov, loop-3 pass 41 close). 'In an MHD generator a hot high-speed conducting gas flows through a magnetic field. As a result of this motion, a voltage is induced. This voltage drives a current through a load and generates electric power.' The closed-loop nonequilibrium facility ran at 1.8 kg/s, 2100 K stagnation temperature, 4 atm, Mach 0.3–0.5; plasma and electrode shorting limited the initial generated power.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:smith-1979-nasa-tm-79135","type":"report","title":"Preliminary results in the NASA Lewis H2-O2 combustion MHD experiment","authors":["J. Marlin Smith"],"year":1979,"venue":"NASA Technical Memorandum 79135 (E-9983); prepared for the 18th Symposium on the Engineering Aspects of Magnetohydrodynamics, Butte, Montana, June 18–20, 1979","url":"https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19790014726","notes":"Read (open NTRS PDF, loop-3 pass 41 close). Cesium-seeded H₂–O₂ combustion MHD generator in a neon-cooled cryomagnet (fields above 5 T; peak used 5 T): the combustion chamber and nozzle are water-cooled copper, 'the nozzle is designed for Mach 2 at the 4.96 cm diameter exit', stagnation pressures 5–20 atm, feeding 'a diverging circular cross section duct having an inlet Mach number of 2' of 42 copper electrodes in a Hall configuration; power output proportional to the square of the B-field; 8.74 kW (run 407) rising to 11.7 kW (run 413) when the front power takeoff moved downstream. The channel velocity is the combustor's own gas-dynamic expansion — no separate pump or compressor supplies it.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:fuel-cell-handbook-2004","type":"book","title":"Fuel Cell Handbook (Seventh Edition)","authors":["EG&G Technical Services","Inc."],"year":2004,"venue":"U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, under contract DE-AM26-99FT40575, November 2004","url":"https://www.netl.doe.gov/sites/default/files/netl-file/FCHandbook7.pdf","notes":"Read (open NETL PDF, loop-3 pass 42), section 2.1–2.2. 'The ideal efficiency of a fuel cell, operating reversibly, is then η_ideal = ΔG/ΔH' (2-14); for H₂ + ½O₂ → H₂O(l) 'at standard conditions of 25 °C (298 K) and 1 atmosphere, the thermal energy (ΔH) in the hydrogen/oxygen reaction is 285.8 kJ/mole, and the free energy available for useful work is 237.1 kJ/mole. Thus, the thermal efficiency of an ideal fuel cell operating reversibly on pure hydrogen and oxygen at standard conditions is: η_ideal = 237.1/285.8 = 0.83' (2-17); 'for direct electrochemical oxidation of carbon ΔG is larger than ΔH, and consequently the ideal efficiency is slightly greater than 100 % when using this definition'. The ideal cell voltage at 1 atm, 25 °C is 1.229 V.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:zhu-long-ort-2010","type":"review","title":"Improving photosynthetic efficiency for greater yield","authors":["X.-G. Zhu","S. P. Long","D. R. Ort"],"year":2010,"venue":"Annual Review of Plant Biology 61, 235–261","doi":"10.1146/annurev-arplant-042809-112206","notes":"DOI verified on Crossref and the abstract read (loop-3 pass 42); cited as reference 7 of Blankenship et al. 2011 (read in full) for the physiology-limited maxima of 4.6 % (C3) and 6.0 % (C4) after known losses in light harvesting, overpotentials and respiration — the review's own pages are not yet read.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:nasa-grc-nozzle-design","type":"web","title":"Nozzle Design (Beginner's Guide to Aeronautics)","authors":["NASA Glenn Research Center"],"year":2024,"venue":"NASA Glenn Research Center, Beginner's Guide to Aeronautics; page dated 2021-08-06, modified 2024-09-12","url":"https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/beginners-guide-to-aeronautics/nozzle-design/","notes":"Read (loop-3 pass 43). 'A nozzle is a relatively simple device, just a specially shaped tube through which hot gases flow … In a CD nozzle, the hot exhaust leaves the combustion chamber and converges down to the minimum area, or throat, of the nozzle. The throat size is chosen to choke the flow and set the mass flow rate through the system. The flow in the throat is sonic … Downstream of the throat, the geometry diverges, and the flow is isentropically expanded to a supersonic Mach number that depends on the area ratio of the exit to the throat. Expansion of a supersonic flow causes the static pressure and temperature to decrease from the throat to the exit'; the derivation (1 − M²) dV/V = −dA/A from mass and momentum conservation with the isentropic relation.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:wu-2014-1kw-thermoacoustic-generator","type":"paper","title":"Investigation on a 1 kW traveling-wave thermoacoustic electrical generator","authors":["Zhanghua Wu","Limin Zhang","Wei Dai","Ercang Luo"],"year":2014,"venue":"Applied Energy 124, 140–147","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.02.063","notes":"Publisher abstract read in the owner's Chrome (Elsevier; the full text is paywalled), loop-3 pass 44: a 1 kW travelling-wave thermoacoustic electrical generator with a linear alternator; after the working frequency was lowered from 74 Hz to 64 Hz by charging 4.5 % mole fraction argon, 'a maximum electric power of 1043 W with a thermal-to-electrical efficiency of 17.7% and a maximum thermal-to-electrical efficiency of 19.8% with an electric power of 970 W were obtained'; 'a mean pressure of 4.0 MPa, a heating temperature of 650 °C and a cooling temperature of 15 °C'; the preliminary run gave 638 W at 16.6 %.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:bi-2017-5kw-thermoacoustic-generator","type":"paper","title":"Development of a 5 kW traveling-wave thermoacoustic electric generator","authors":["Tianjiao Bi","Zhanghua Wu","Limin Zhang","Guoyao Yu","Ercang Luo","Wei Dai"],"year":2017,"venue":"Applied Energy 185, 1355–1361 (online December 2015)","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.12.034","notes":"Publisher abstract read in the owner's Chrome (Elsevier; the full text is paywalled), loop-3 pass 44: a three-stage travelling-wave thermoacoustic electric generator, units connected end-to-end by slim resonance tubes with a linear alternator as a bypass at the end of each; 'the maximum electric power of 4.69 kW with thermal-to-electric efficiency of 15.6% and the maximum thermal-to-electric efficiency of 18.4% with electric power of 3.46 kW were achieved with 6 MPa pressurized helium, 650 °C and 25 °C heating and cooling temperatures'.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:migliore-2005-nrel-cp-500-38157","type":"report","title":"Balancing Performance, Noise, Cost, and Aesthetics in the Southwest Windpower 'Storm' Wind Turbine: Preprint","authors":["P. Migliore","J. Green","D. Calley","J. Lonjaret"],"year":2005,"venue":"NREL/CP-500-38157, August 2005; prepared for WindPower 2005, Denver","url":"https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy05osti/38157.pdf","notes":"Read in full (loop-3 pass 44; nrel.gov did not resolve from this machine, so the Internet Archive's copy of the same URL, captured 24/02/2025, was read). Power coefficient 'defined as the ratio of power converted by the turbine to that available in the wind'. Pre-prototype field tests of the Storm — a three-blade, downwind, variable-speed, stall-regulated turbine rated at 1.8 kW: 'Using field-test data of measured electrical power and dynamometer tests of alternator efficiency, the team deduced a peak rotor Cp ≈ 0.45. A combination of good blade aerodynamics and rotor speed control produced a broad, flat Cp curve with Cp ≈ 0.43 over a 4 m/s wind speed range'; Figure 13 'The pre-prototype rotor achieved a rotor power coefficient of approximately 0.45'; the summary calls the results preliminary, with definitive NWTC tests under way.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:schneider-2017-monroe-hydro-doe","type":"report","title":"Development of a project on North Unit Irrigation District's Main Canal at the Monroe Drop, using a novel low-head hydropower technology called the SLH100","authors":["Abraham Schneider","Gia Schneider","Katherine McKinstry","Meghan Harwood"],"year":2017,"venue":"Natel Energy final report to the U.S. Department of Energy, award DE-EE0005420 (FOA DE-FOA-0000486, Advanced Hydropower Development); OSTI 1346739","doi":"10.2172/1346739","notes":"Read in full (loop-3 pass 44; osti.gov timed out from this machine, so the Internet Archive's copy of the OSTI PDF, captured 04/02/2025, was read). One SLH100 hydroEngine (linearly moving foils rather than a rotor) commissioned September 2015 at an existing drop on the NUID main canal, Madras, Oregon: 'The nameplate capacity of the SLH100 at the Monroe Hydro Project is 250 kW. The gross head ranges between 4.1 meters and 5.1 meters. The machine can pass a maximum flow of 331 cfs. The SLH100 hydroEngine has run at maximum power of 267 kW with water-to-wire plant efficiency of 60% (73% hydraulic efficiency), meeting design expectations.' The report gives no formula for either efficiency and does not state the grid-side boundary; expected annual generation 873 MWh, 40 % annual capacity factor (80 % over the irrigation season).","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:zhang-2025-sic-betavoltaic","type":"paper","title":"Optimal Selection and Experimental Verification of Wide-Bandgap Semiconductor for Betavoltaic Battery","authors":["Jiachen Zhang","Kunlun Lv","Yuan Yin","Yuqian Gao","Ye Tian","Yuncheng Han","Jun Tang"],"year":2025,"venue":"Nanomaterials 15(9), 635 (open access)","doi":"10.3390/nano15090635","notes":"Read in full from the MDPI article XML (loop-3 pass 44). Equation 1: the total efficiency η = P_max / P_in = I_sc·V_oc·FF / (A·E_ave·q), P_in the power of the isotope source (A its activity, E_ave the average particle energy); 'the total energy conversion efficiency (η) … can be divided into isotope source efficiency (η_s) and semiconductor device efficiency (η_d)'; η_s 'about 35% when the thickness of 63Ni is 500 nm with single-side emission'. 4H-SiC PIN devices measured under a ⁶³Ni source of 1 × 3 cm² active area and 15 mCi total activity: Table 3 — I_sc 2.91 nA, V_oc 1.41 V, FF 0.81, η_d 7.31 % (14.88 % under an electron beam); Table 4 — this work (SiC): V_oc 1.22–1.41 V, FF 0.81–0.89, η 2.34–2.56 %. The 7.31 % is the device stage only; the whole-battery figure is the 2.34–2.56 %.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:kim-2026-c14-perovskite-betavoltaic","type":"paper","title":"Carbon-14 Perovskite Betavoltaics Reach Record 10.79% Efficiency","authors":["Hong Soo Kim","Ryan Rhee","Junho Lee","Muhammad Bilal Naseem","Jung Hwan Lee","Jong Hyeok Park","Su-Il In"],"year":2026,"venue":"Carbon Energy 8(5), e70149 (open access; first published 18 December 2025)","doi":"10.1002/cey2.70149","notes":"Main text and Supporting Information read in the owner's Chrome (loop-3 pass 44; the SI .docx was parsed in the page). 'The MACl-FAPbI3 device integrated with a 14C source (4.5 μCi) exhibits a Jsc of 10.60 nA cm−2, a Voc of 76.92 mV, a FF of 17.41, and an ECE of 10.79%'. SI Equation 1: η = P_max / P_source = J_sc × V_oc × FF / (E_avg × e × A), A = 0.0045 mCi per 1.0 cm² of active area, E_avg = 49.4 keV per decay for ¹⁴C, 1 Ci = 3.7 × 10¹⁰ decays/s; the worked values 0.142 nW / 1.316 nW ≅ 10.79 % — the denominator is the source's total decay power from its nominal activity, with no self-absorption correction. Stack FTO/SnO₂/MACl-FAPbI₃/Spiro-MeOTAD/¹⁴CNP/CQD/FTO; I–V by sourcemeter over −0.1 to +0.8 V; over 15 h continuous operation.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:fountaine-2016-pec-limits","type":"paper","title":"Efficiency limits for photoelectrochemical water-splitting","authors":["Katherine T. Fountaine","Hans Joachim Lewerenz","Harry A. Atwater"],"year":2016,"venue":"Nature Communications 7, 13706 (open access)","doi":"10.1038/ncomms13706","notes":"Read in full (open Nature page and PDF, loop-3 pass 46). Ideal case (Table 1: absorption fraction 1, external radiative efficiency 1, catalytic exchange current densities infinite, series resistance 0, shunt resistance infinite; nine assumptions listed — AM1.5G, complete above-gap absorption, detailed-balance dark current with only radiative recombination, ideality 1, negligible catalytic overpotentials, charge-transfer coefficients 0.5, no series resistance, E_rxn = 1.23 V, unity Faradaic efficiency): 'The maximum single and dual junction efficiencies are 30.6% at a bandgap of 1.59 eV, and 40.0% with bandgaps of 0.52 and 1.40 eV, respectively'; the ideal triple junction maximum is 28.3 % — additional junctions add nothing because photovoltage beyond that needed to split water does not raise efficiency. Realistic cases: Real1 (high-performance materials: f_abs 0.9, ERE 0.03, j0,cat {1, 10⁻³} mA cm⁻² cathodic/anodic, r_s 0, r_sh ∞) η_max 15.1 % at 2.05 eV single junction and 28.3 % at 1.59 / 0.92 eV dual junction; Real2 (Earth-abundant: f_abs 0.9, ERE 10⁻⁶, j0,cat {1, 10⁻⁵}, r_s 0.1, r_sh 10, normalised resistivities) 5.4 % at 2.53 eV and 16.2 % at 1.93 / 1.38 eV — the paper's words are 'realistic limiting efficiencies', maxima of parameterised model cases.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"source:rozzi-2020-green-synthetic-fuels","type":"review","title":"Green Synthetic Fuels: Renewable Routes for the Conversion of Non-Fossil Feedstocks into Gaseous Fuels and Their End Uses","authors":["Elena Rozzi","Francesco Demetrio Minuto","Andrea Lanzini","Pierluigi Leone"],"year":2020,"venue":"Energies 13(2), 420 (open access review)","doi":"10.3390/en13020420","notes":"DOI verified on Crossref; Section 3.2.2 read on the MDPI full-text page in the owner's Chrome (loop-3 pass 47 close): 'The theoretical maximum efficiency of a single junction cell with a bandgap of 1.59 eV is 30.6% and increases to 40.0% for a dual junction device with bandgaps of 0.52 and 1.40 eV. The triple junction maximum efficiency is 28.3%, remarkably lower than dual junction efficiency [389]', reference 389 being Fountaine, Lewerenz & Atwater 2016. It restates the ideal single- and dual-junction limits and the ideal triple-junction figure only; it does not state Fountaine's realistic-case (Real1 / Real2) maxima, so it is evidence for the two ideal-limit claims and never for the benchmarks. Secondary evidence: it restates Fountaine's calculation, citing it, and is not an independent replication — the claims read established under the atlas's review-supported rule, nothing more.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}}],"pathways":[{"id":"pathway:incandescent-lamp","name":"Incandescent lamp","steps":["claim:thermal-emission-drives","claim:thermal-emission-converts-light"],"demonstrated_with":[],"evidence":["source:landsberg-tonge-1980"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","environment":["temp-high"],"summary":"A filament at ~2800 K radiates; a few per cent of the power lands in the visible band.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:combustion-heater","name":"Combustion heater (boiler, furnace)","steps":["claim:combustion-drives","claim:combustion-converts-heat"],"demonstrated_with":[],"evidence":["source:bejan-2016"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","environment":["state-gas","temp-high"],"summary":"Fuel burns; the hot gas gives its enthalpy to water, air or a process stream.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:heat-exchanger","name":"Heat exchanger","steps":["claim:heat-conduction-drives","claim:heat-conduction-produces-heat-flow","claim:heat-flow-converts-useful-heat"],"demonstrated_with":[],"evidence":["source:bejan-2016"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","performance":{"notes":"effectiveness 0.6–0.95 for counterflow designs; no thermodynamic ceiling on heat delivered, only on its temperature","measurements":[]},"environment":["temp-gradient-required"],"summary":"Heat conducts through a wall from the hot stream to the cold one.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:passive-radiative-cooler","name":"Passive daytime radiative cooler","steps":["claim:sky-drives-radiative-cooling","claim:radiative-cooling-converts-cooling"],"demonstrated_with":[],"evidence":["source:raman-2014"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K7","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"radiative cooling power density at ambient air temperature","value":"40.1 W/m²","value_numeric":40.1,"unit":"W/m²","metric":"power-density","basis":"net cooling power per unit area of the photonic cooler when its surface is at ambient air temperature (zero temperature reduction), measured on a rooftop","normalization":{"kind":"area","basis":"radiative-cooler-area"},"scope":"device","conditions":"seven-layer HfO₂/SiO₂ photonic solar reflector and thermal emitter reflecting 97 % of sunlight and emitting in the 8–13 µm atmospheric window; direct sunlight exceeding 850 W/m²; at zero cooling load the cooler settled 4.9 °C below ambient air temperature","sources":["source:raman-2014"],"year":2014}]},"environment":[],"summary":"A photonic multilayer reflects sunlight and emits in the 8–13 µm window, cooling below ambient at noon.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:solar-water-heater","name":"Solar thermal collector (hot water)","steps":["claim:photothermal-drives","claim:photothermal-produces-heat","claim:heat-flow-converts-useful-heat"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:solar-thermal-collector"],"evidence":["source:bejan-2016"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","environment":["illumination-required"],"summary":"A dark absorber under glass heats water in tubes.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:vacuum-photocell","name":"Vacuum photocell","steps":["claim:photoelectric-drives","claim:photoelectric-produces","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":[],"evidence":["source:kittel-2005"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","performance":{"notes":"used as a detector for a century; as a power converter its efficiency is limited by the work-function threshold and space charge","measurements":[]},"environment":["env-vacuum","illumination-required"],"summary":"Photons above the work function eject electrons to a collector across a vacuum gap.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:photon-enhanced-thermionic-converter","name":"Photon-enhanced thermionic converter","steps":["claim:pete-drives","claim:pete-produces","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":[],"evidence":["source:schwede-2010"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K4","environment":["env-vacuum","temp-high","illumination-required"],"summary":"Concentrated sunlight photoexcites a hot GaN cathode that then emits thermionically; laboratory demonstration.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:anomalous-nernst-thermopile","name":"Anomalous Nernst thermopile","steps":["claim:anomalous-nernst-drives","claim:anomalous-nernst-produces","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":[],"evidence":["source:sakai-2018"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K4","performance":{"notes":"transverse thermopower of ~6 µV/K in Co₂MnGa; device power densities not yet competitive","measurements":[]},"environment":["state-solid","medium-ferromagnet","temp-gradient-required"],"summary":"A magnetised film develops a transverse voltage along a temperature gradient; laid out as a thermopile without junctions.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:nernst-ettingshausen-generator","name":"Nernst–Ettingshausen generator","steps":["claim:nernst-drives","claim:nernst-produces","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":[],"evidence":["source:rowe-2006","source:callen-1948"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K4","performance":{"notes":"Bi–Sb alloys in fields of a few tesla at cryogenic temperatures; laboratory devices only","measurements":[]},"environment":["state-solid","field-magnetic-required","temp-gradient-required"],"summary":"A transverse thermomagnetic generator; needs a strong field and works best cold.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:spin-pumping-ishe-detector","name":"Spin pumping with inverse spin Hall detection","steps":["claim:spin-pumping-drives","claim:spin-pumping-produces","claim:spin-current-drives-ishe","claim:ishe-produces","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":[],"evidence":["source:saitoh-2006","source:tserkovnyak-2002"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K4","performance":{"notes":"microvolt DC signals from a permalloy/Pt bilayer at ferromagnetic resonance (Saitoh 2006); a measurement, not a power source","measurements":[]},"environment":["state-solid","medium-ferromagnet","field-magnetic-required"],"summary":"Precessing magnetisation pumps a spin current into Pt, where the inverse spin Hall effect converts it to a voltage.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:electrokinetic-microchannel-generator","name":"Electrokinetic microchannel generator","steps":["claim:pressure-drives-streaming","claim:streaming-produces-ions","claim:ionic-current-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:electrokinetic-microchannel"],"evidence":["source:yang-2003-electrokinetic"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K4","performance":{"notes":"streaming current from water forced through a glass microchannel array; efficiencies below 1%","measurements":[]},"environment":["env-aqueous","flow-required"],"summary":"Pressure-driven electrolyte flow through charged channels produces a streaming current.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:reverse-electrowetting-harvester","name":"Reverse-electrowetting harvester","steps":["claim:rew-drives","claim:rew-produces","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":[],"evidence":["source:krupenkin-taylor-2011"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K4","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"instantaneous electrical power density","value":"≈ 10² W/m²","value_numeric":100,"unit":"W/m²","metric":"power-density","basis":"instantaneous resistive-load electrical power divided by the instantaneous / maximum liquid–substrate overlap area as the experiment defines it — an active-interface density, not a device-footprint one","normalization":{"kind":"area","basis":"liquid-substrate-overlap-area"},"scope":"device","conditions":"arrays of droplets oscillated against nanometre-thick multilayer dielectric films at tens of hertz; three configurations (28 mm² and 8 mm² liquid–substrate overlap per droplet) gave the same level","sources":["source:krupenkin-taylor-2011"],"year":2011,"note":"the abstract's 'high power densities, up to 10³ W m⁻²' is the authors' stated potential of the method, with no assumptions or denominator in the text read, so it is not recorded; the '≈ 1 mW per droplet-electrode' the atlas carried until pass 37 appears nowhere in the paper"}]},"environment":["state-liquid","field-electric-required"],"summary":"Droplets forced across biased dielectric-coated electrodes pump charge through the load.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:concentration-cell","name":"Concentration cell","steps":["claim:concentration-cell-drives","claim:concentration-cell-produces","claim:ionic-current-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":[],"evidence":["source:bard-faulkner-2001"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","environment":["env-aqueous"],"summary":"Two identical electrodes in solutions of different activity; a textbook cell and the principle of reverse electrodialysis.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:capacitive-mixing-cell","name":"Capacitive mixing cell","steps":["claim:salinity-drives-capmix","claim:capmix-produces","claim:ionic-current-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:capmix-cell"],"evidence":["source:brogioli-2009"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K5","environment":["env-aqueous"],"summary":"Carbon electrodes charged in salt water and discharged in fresh water return net energy.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:evaporation-driven-engine","name":"Evaporation-driven engine","steps":["claim:humidity-drives-evaporation","claim:evaporation-produces-motion","claim:motion-converts-mechanical-work"],"demonstrated_with":[],"evidence":["source:chen-2015-evaporation"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K4","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"peak electrical power (bursts)","value":"60 mW","value_numeric":0.06,"unit":"W","metric":"power","basis":"electrical power dissipated in a 100 kΩ load resistor during the oscillator's bursts","scope":"device","conditions":"the evaporation-driven oscillatory engine (spore-based HYDRA muscles on a buckling beam with a shutter) coupled to a generator, resting on water at 30 °C, the HYDRAs covering 9.6 cm × 7.6 cm of water surface","sources":["source:chen-2015-evaporation"],"year":2015},{"quantity":"average electrical power","value":"1.8 mW","value_numeric":0.0018,"unit":"W","metric":"power","basis":"the same load, averaged over the bursts and the waiting periods between them","scope":"device","conditions":"as above; the authors expect the waiting periods to shrink with more compact designs","sources":["source:chen-2015-evaporation"],"year":2015}]},"environment":["humidity-required"],"summary":"Bacterial spores swell and shrink with humidity, driving a piston or a rotary engine.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:chemiosmotic-atp-synthesis","name":"Chemiosmotic ATP synthesis","steps":["claim:chemiosmosis-drives","claim:chemiosmosis-converts-fuel"],"demonstrated_with":[],"evidence":["source:mitchell-1961"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","performance":{"notes":"≈ 3–4 protons per ATP; the rotary motor runs at ~100 revolutions per second in vivo","measurements":[]},"environment":["env-aqueous","medium-membrane"],"summary":"A transmembrane proton-motive force drives ATP synthase to make ATP; the central bioenergetic mechanism of respiratory and photosynthetic phosphorylation.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 7 audit (ChatGPT review, applied and source-verified by the lane)"}},{"id":"pathway:steam-engine","name":"Steam Rankine cycle (shaft work)","steps":["claim:expansion-drives","claim:expansion-produces-motion","claim:motion-converts-mechanical-work"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:rankine-cycle-plant"],"evidence":["source:bejan-2016"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","environment":["temp-gradient-required"],"summary":"Heat raises steam in a Rankine cycle; the turbine delivers shaft work — the mechanical-work endpoint of the same architecture whose electrical pathway adds the generator.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 38 (renamed to the architecture its transducer establishes, on the second reader's finding); pass 7 audit"}},{"id":"pathway:windmill","name":"Windmill (mechanical)","steps":["claim:flow-drives-lift","claim:lift-produces-motion","claim:motion-converts-mechanical-work"],"demonstrated_with":[],"evidence":["source:betz-1920","source:dixon-hall-2014"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","environment":["flow-required"],"summary":"Wind turns a rotor that grinds, pumps or saws.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:waterwheel","name":"Waterwheel (mechanical)","steps":["claim:gravity-drives-descent","claim:descent-produces-waterwheel-motion","claim:motion-converts-mechanical-work"],"demonstrated_with":[],"evidence":["source:dixon-hall-2014"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","environment":["state-liquid"],"summary":"Falling water turns a wheel; the wheel turns a millstone.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 7 audit (ChatGPT review, applied and source-verified by the lane)"}},{"id":"pathway:wave-energy-plant","name":"Wave energy converter","steps":["claim:wave-drives","claim:wave-produces-motion","claim:motion-drives-generator","claim:generator-produces-carriers","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:wave-energy-converter"],"evidence":["source:salter-1974"],"status":"prototype","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K7","performance":{"notes":"point absorbers and oscillating water columns of 100 kW–1 MW have run at sea for years; no converged design","measurements":[]},"environment":["state-liquid"],"summary":"A buoy or flap follows the wave and drives a generator through a hydraulic or direct-drive power take-off.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:tidal-stream-plant","name":"Tidal stream plant","steps":["claim:tide-drives","claim:tide-produces-flow","claim:flow-drives-lift","claim:lift-produces-motion","claim:motion-drives-generator","claim:generator-produces-carriers","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:tidal-turbine"],"evidence":["source:dixon-hall-2014"],"status":"prototype","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K7","performance":{"notes":"MeyGen (Scotland) has exported tens of GWh from 1.5 MW submerged turbines since 2017","measurements":[]},"environment":["state-liquid","flow-required"],"summary":"Tidal currents turn submerged rotors on generators.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:flow-induced-vibration-harvester","name":"Flow-induced-vibration piezoelectric harvester","steps":["claim:flow-drives-fiv","claim:fiv-produces-vibration","claim:vibration-drives-resonance","claim:resonance-produces-stress","claim:piezo-drives","claim:piezo-produces-charge","claim:surface-charge-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":[],"evidence":["source:radousky-liang-2012","source:erturk-inman-2011"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K5","environment":["flow-required","state-solid"],"summary":"A bluff body sheds vortices, a flexible piezoelectric stalk oscillates in its wake; bladeless flow harvesting.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:radioisotope-heater-unit","name":"Radioisotope heater unit","steps":["claim:binding-drives-decay","claim:decay-produces-alpha","claim:alpha-drives-heating","claim:heating-produces-gradient","claim:heat-conduction-drives","claim:heat-conduction-produces-heat-flow","claim:heat-flow-converts-useful-heat"],"demonstrated_with":[],"evidence":["source:prelas-2014"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","performance":{"notes":"1 W thermal from 2.7 g of Pu-238 oxide; dozens flown on spacecraft to keep instruments warm","measurements":[]},"environment":["radioisotope-required"],"summary":"Decay heat conducts out of a small pellet to keep spacecraft electronics above their minimum temperature.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:shape-memory-heat-engine","name":"Shape-memory alloy heat engine","steps":["claim:temperature-drives-shape-memory","claim:shape-memory-produces-motion","claim:motion-drives-generator","claim:generator-produces-carriers","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:shape-memory-heat-engine"],"evidence":["source:sma-heat-engine-2019"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"thermal-to-electrical efficiency","value":"1.5% (10.5% of Carnot at the reported maximum-efficiency operating point)","scope":"laboratory","conditions":"NiTi SMA heat engine driving a generator; maximum efficiency reported near a 70 °C hot-water bath with ambient acting as the heat sink","sources":["source:sma-heat-engine-2019"],"year":2019}]},"environment":["state-solid","temp-gradient-required"],"summary":"NiTi elements cycled between warm and cold baths turn a shaft that drives a generator; a low-grade-heat engine with no working fluid.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 7 audit (ChatGPT review, applied and source-verified by the lane)"}},{"id":"pathway:shape-memory-actuator","name":"Shape-memory heat engine (mechanical)","steps":["claim:temperature-drives-shape-memory","claim:shape-memory-produces-motion","claim:motion-converts-mechanical-work"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:shape-memory-heat-engine"],"evidence":["source:otsuka-wayman-1998","source:sma-heat-engine-2019"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","environment":["state-solid","temp-gradient-required"],"summary":"The same engine delivering shaft work directly (Banks engine, 1973, and successors).","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:thermo-osmotic-energy-converter","name":"Thermo-osmotic energy conversion (TOEC)","steps":["claim:temperature-drives-thermo-osmosis","claim:thermo-osmosis-produces-flow","claim:fluid-flow-carrier-drives-lift","claim:lift-produces-motion","claim:motion-converts-mechanical-work"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:thermo-osmotic-energy-converter"],"evidence":["source:straub-2016-toec"],"status":"proposed","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K5","performance":{"notes":"Every TOEC power density on record (Kuipers 2014 MemPower, Straub 2016, Li 2021 stack, Zhao 2021 PRMD) is the pressure × flux of the pressurised permeate, not turbine output. The one physical run through a hydro-turbine (Xiao et al. 2024, a 2 W-rated bulb lit) stored the permeate in an elevated tank first, a longer chain through gravitational head conversion; the direct coupling of a turbine to the pressurised permeate has not been reported (route search of 21/09/2026).","measurements":[{"quantity":"hydraulic power density","value":"3.53 ± 0.29 W/m² of membrane","value_numeric":3.53,"unit":"W/m²","metric":"power-density","basis":"pressure × permeate flux per membrane area; the turbine stage proposed, not run","normalization":{"kind":"area","basis":"membrane-area"},"scope":"laboratory","conditions":"60 °C hot side, 20 °C cold side, hydraulic pressures up to 13 bar; the pressurised flow was measured, the turbine stage is proposed","sources":["source:straub-2016-toec"],"year":2016}]},"environment":["state-liquid","medium-membrane","temp-gradient-required"],"summary":"Heat drives a thermo-osmotic vapour flux through a hydrophobic membrane into a pressurised reservoir; the pressurised flow is recorded, its conversion through a turbine is the proposed step.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 21 (TOEC route search: status kept proposed — the only turbine run, Xiao 2024, is a longer chain through gravitational storage)"}},{"id":"pathway:bimetal-piezoelectric-harvester","name":"Bimetallic-strip piezoelectric harvester","steps":["claim:thermal-expansion-drives","claim:thermal-expansion-produces-stress","claim:piezo-drives","claim:piezo-produces-charge","claim:surface-charge-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:bimetal-piezo-harvester"],"evidence":["source:boughaleb-2016-bimetal-piezo"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","performance":{"notes":"microwatt-scale electrical output per snap in laboratory devices; the strip's snap-through converts a slow thermal cycle into an impulse the piezoelectric element can use","measurements":[]},"environment":["state-solid","temp-gradient-required"],"summary":"A bimetallic strip snapping between hot and cold plates strikes a piezoelectric element; a demonstrated thermal-to-electrical harvester with no working fluid.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 10 (frontier as a research instrument)"}},{"id":"pathway:forced-circulation-heat-delivery","name":"Forced-circulation heat-delivery loop","steps":["claim:temperature-drives-advective-heat-transport","claim:advective-heat-transport-produces-heat-flow","claim:heat-flow-converts-useful-heat"],"demonstrated_with":[],"evidence":["source:doe-hdbk-1012-2-92","source:nrc-pressurized-water-reactors"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":["flow:bulk-fluid-motion"],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[{"kind":"external-input","energy_form":"mechanical","purpose":"circulation pump","establishes":["flow:bulk-fluid-motion"],"conditions":["external pump or equivalent circulation machinery maintains bulk motion of the heat-carrying fluid through the hot and cold regions"],"evidence":["source:doe-hdbk-1012-2-92"],"note":"mechanical because that is the work supplied to the fluid; an implementation may obtain the shaft work electrically (the PWR's reactor coolant pumps do)"}],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","environment":["flow-required","temp-gradient-required"],"summary":"A pumped fluid carries enthalpy from a hot region to a cold one and delivers it as useful heat — forced convection in the DOE handbook's sense, the fluid motion caused by an outside force such as a pump, with the pumped heat exchanger as its canonical example and a reactor's primary coolant loop as a commercial one. A transport subsystem, not a converter: thermal in, thermal out.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 41 (the second reader's findings 14–19; DOE-HDBK-1012/2-92 read)"}},{"id":"pathway:thermocapillary-micromotor","name":"Thermocapillary micromotor","steps":["claim:temperature-drives-marangoni","claim:marangoni-produces-motion","claim:motion-converts-mechanical-work"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:thermocapillary-micromotor"],"evidence":["source:maggi-2015-thermocapillary-gears"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K5","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"rotation rate","value":"up to 300 r.p.m.","scope":"device","conditions":"microfabricated asymmetric gears on a liquid–air interface under wide-field incoherent illumination; the temperature gradient that drives the thermocapillary flow is produced by the light the gear absorbs","sources":["source:maggi-2015-thermocapillary-gears"],"year":2015,"note":"rotational work against viscous drag; no load other than the fluid was measured"}]},"environment":["state-liquid","temp-gradient-required"],"summary":"Absorbed light heats an asymmetric floating gear unevenly; the surface-tension gradient around it drives a thermocapillary flow whose stress torques the gear. The temperature gradient is the driver; light is how it is prepared.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 16 (frontier candidates audited as physics; source read)"}},{"id":"pathway:marangoni-rotor","name":"Solutocapillary Marangoni rotor","steps":["claim:surface-drives-marangoni","claim:marangoni-produces-motion","claim:motion-converts-mechanical-work"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:marangoni-rotor-generator"],"evidence":["source:frenkel-2019-marangoni-generator"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K5","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"duration of rotation","value":"≈ 10–20 h","scope":"device","conditions":"floating polymer rotor with camphor engines on deionised water in a 420 mm dish","sources":["source:frenkel-2019-marangoni-generator"],"year":2019}]},"environment":["state-liquid"],"summary":"Camphor released from a floating rotor lowers the surface tension asymmetrically; the solutocapillary stress spins the rotor for hours — the camphor boat as a rotor.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 16 (frontier candidates audited as physics; source read)"}},{"id":"pathway:marangoni-rotor-generator","name":"Marangoni rotor mini-generator","steps":["claim:surface-drives-marangoni","claim:marangoni-produces-motion","claim:motion-drives-induction","claim:induction-produces-carriers","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:marangoni-rotor-generator"],"evidence":["source:frenkel-2019-marangoni-generator"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K5","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"load voltage","value":"1.6 mV maximum across 35 Ω","scope":"device","conditions":"permanent magnets on the rotor passing a stationary 800-turn copper coil (r = 35 Ω) connected to a 35 Ω resistor; about 7 × 10⁻⁸ W at the maximum","sources":["source:frenkel-2019-marangoni-generator"],"year":2019,"note":"the power figure is derived from the reported voltage and resistance, not reported directly"}]},"environment":["state-liquid","medium-conductor","field-magnetic-required"],"summary":"The solutocapillary rotor carries permanent magnets whose passage induces a current in a stationary coil; a mini-generator run by a surface-energy difference alone.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 16 (frontier candidates audited as physics; source read)"}},{"id":"pathway:thermo-driven-nanofluidic-converter","name":"Thermo-driven nanofluidic electrokinetic converter","steps":["claim:temperature-drives-thermo-osmosis","claim:thermo-osmosis-couples-streaming","claim:streaming-produces-ions","claim:ionic-current-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:thermo-driven-nanofluidic-converter"],"evidence":["source:zhao-2020-thermo-nanofluidics"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K4","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"streaming current","value":"14 nA at ΔT = 47.5 °C","scope":"device","conditions":"track-etched polyimide membrane, 0.5 cm² exposed area, between hot and cold reservoirs; current rising linearly with ΔT, direction set by the surface charge (pH)","sources":["source:zhao-2020-thermo-nanofluidics"],"year":2020,"note":"a measured short-circuit current; the electrical power (25.48 pW per channel at ΔT = 40 °C in the paper) is calculated, not delivered to a load"}]},"environment":["state-liquid","medium-membrane","env-aqueous","temp-gradient-required"],"summary":"Thermo-osmotic flow through charged nanochannels carries the double-layer counter-ions; the streaming current is the electrical output. The composition the atlas's first reviewed search found, recorded as the device it is.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 16 (frontier candidates audited as physics; mechanism read in pass 13)"}},{"id":"pathway:thermomagnetic-hydrodynamic-harvester","name":"Thermomagnetic hydrodynamic energy harvester","steps":["claim:temperature-drives-ferrofluid-convection","claim:ferrofluid-convection-couples-induction","claim:induction-produces-carriers","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:thermomagnetic-hydrodynamic-harvester"],"evidence":["source:chiolerio-2020-thermomagnetic-harvester"],"status":"prototype","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"extracted electrical power per kelvin","value":"up to 10.4 μW/K","scope":"laboratory","conditions":"toroidal closed loop, commercial ferrofluid packets in a water carrier, Peltier-controlled gradient, permanent magnets, poloidal or mixed poloidal/toroidal induction windings","sources":["source:chiolerio-2020-thermomagnetic-harvester"],"year":2020}]},"environment":["state-liquid","field-magnetic-required","temp-gradient-required","medium-conductor"],"summary":"A ferrofluid advects around a torus as heating demagnetises it; coils wound on the torus see the passing magnetised packets and deliver electrical power directly, with no moving solid part.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 16 (frontier candidates audited as physics; source read)"}},{"id":"pathway:thermomagnetic-fluid-engine","name":"Thermomagnetic fluid engine","steps":["claim:temperature-drives-ferrofluid-convection","claim:ferrofluid-convection-produces-flow","claim:fluid-flow-carrier-drives-lift","claim:lift-produces-motion","claim:motion-converts-mechanical-work"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:thermomagnetic-fluid-engine"],"evidence":["source:zhou-2009-thermomagnetic-engine"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K5","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"rotor angular velocity","value":"≈ 2.1 rad/min peak","scope":"device","conditions":"kerosene-based temperature-sensitive magnetic fluid, permanent NdFeB magnet, rotor in the circulating fluid; speed rises with heat input and with a colder heat sink","sources":["source:zhou-2009-thermomagnetic-engine"],"year":2009,"note":"no shaft power reported; a miniature demonstration of the mechanism"}]},"environment":["state-liquid","field-magnetic-required","temp-gradient-required"],"summary":"Thermomagnetic convection of a magnetic fluid in a permanent-magnet field circulates the fluid, and the circulating fluid turns a rotor — the produced flow loading a blade, which is why the atlas records it on the flow-to-rotor spelling rather than as a direct effect.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 16 (frontier candidates audited as physics; source read)"}},{"id":"pathway:pneumatic-pressure-piezo-harvester","name":"Pneumatic pressure piezoelectric harvester","steps":["claim:pressure-drives-elastic","claim:elastic-produces-stress-carrier","claim:elastic-stress-drives-piezo","claim:piezo-produces-charge","claim:surface-charge-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:pneumatic-pressure-piezo-harvester"],"evidence":["source:yang-2022-pneumatic-piezo-harvester"],"status":"prototype","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K5","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"peak power","value":"140 μW at 1500 kΩ","value_numeric":0.00014,"unit":"W","metric":"power","basis":"peak electrical power into the optimal 1500 kΩ load during a pressure excursion","scope":"device","conditions":"air pressure varying from 0 to 0.5 MPa on a sealed piezoelectric harvester connected to a pneumatic branch pipe; transient, alternating output","sources":["source:yang-2022-pneumatic-piezo-harvester"],"year":2022},{"quantity":"power density","value":"1.43 mW cm⁻³","value_numeric":1.43,"unit":"mW/cm³","metric":"power-density","basis":"peak power per unit volume of the harvester (the authors' volumetric normalisation), at the maximum peak power","normalization":{"kind":"volume","basis":"device-volume"},"scope":"device","conditions":"same excursion and load","sources":["source:yang-2022-pneumatic-piezo-harvester"],"year":2022}]},"environment":["state-solid","medium-non-centrosymmetric"],"summary":"The pressure excursions of a pneumatic line stress a sealed piezoelectric element, which delivers transient electrical power; the pressure gradient is engineered, so this is a harvester of an existing system's swings, not a primary source.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 16 (frontier candidates audited as physics; source read)"}},{"id":"pathway:wave-impact-piezo-harvester","name":"Wave-impact piezoelectric harvester","steps":["claim:wave-drives","claim:wave-produces-pressure","claim:pressure-drives-elastic","claim:elastic-produces-stress-carrier","claim:elastic-stress-drives-piezo","claim:piezo-produces-charge","claim:surface-charge-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:wave-impact-piezo-harvester"],"evidence":["source:mozumder-2026-wave-impact-piezo"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K5","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"open-circuit voltage per pipe","value":"up to 1.28 V","scope":"laboratory","conditions":"stacked PZT-5A discs struck by 70 g steel impact balls on rigid cement base tiles, double-disc configuration; simulated waves at 0.1–2 Hz, 3.5 % salinity","sources":["source:mozumder-2026-wave-impact-piezo"],"year":2026},{"quantity":"power per wave event","value":"≈ 20 mW","scope":"laboratory","conditions":"same configuration; reported per wave event, not as a time average","sources":["source:mozumder-2026-wave-impact-piezo"],"year":2026,"note":"one laboratory demonstration in a conference series; the atlas records it as demonstrated, not replicated"}]},"environment":["state-liquid","state-solid","medium-non-centrosymmetric"],"summary":"Wave motion drives impact balls against stacked piezoelectric discs; the impact stress is the pressure step the atlas records between wave motion and elastic deformation, a coarse but faithful spelling of impact loading.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 16 (frontier candidates audited as physics; source read)"}},{"id":"pathway:thermocapillary-streaming-generator","name":"Thermocapillary streaming-potential generator (proposed)","steps":["claim:temperature-drives-marangoni","claim:marangoni-produces-flow","claim:fluid-flow-carrier-drives-streaming","claim:streaming-produces-ions","claim:ionic-current-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":[],"evidence":["source:pini-2015-surface-tension-streaming"],"status":"proposed","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K3","performance":{"notes":"Pini, Baier and Dietzel (2015) compare the maximal thermal efficiency of the thermocapillary drive with the Carnot value and find it limited by the heat capacity of aqueous solvents — the source's own analysis, not a bound of the atlas.","measurements":[]},"environment":["state-liquid","env-aqueous","temp-gradient-required","charged-surface-required"],"summary":"A temperature gradient along a free electrolyte surface drives a thermocapillary shear flow past a charged wall, whose streaming potential is the electrical output. Analysed theoretically and numerically; no physical demonstration is recorded, so the route stays a candidate.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-20","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 16 (frontier candidates audited as physics; abstract read)"}},{"id":"pathway:solutocapillary-streaming-generator","name":"Solutocapillary streaming-potential generator (proposed)","steps":["claim:surface-drives-marangoni","claim:marangoni-produces-flow","claim:fluid-flow-carrier-drives-streaming","claim:streaming-produces-ions","claim:ionic-current-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":[],"evidence":["source:pini-2015-surface-tension-streaming","source:zhang-2026-marangoni-hydrovoltaic"],"status":"proposed","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K3","performance":{"notes":"Pini, Baier and Dietzel (2015) find concentration-driven (destillocapillary) flows more promising than thermocapillary ones — a finding of the source, not a bound. Zhang et al. 2026 physically demonstrated a graphene-oxide evaporator in which a programmed chemical/surface-tension gradient sustained Marangoni microcirculation alongside capillary flow while the device delivered 25 μA short-circuit current, 0.7 V open-circuit voltage and powered an LED. Route review: driver-only-modifies because capillary and Marangoni transport are simultaneous co-drivers and the electrical contribution of the Marangoni branch was not isolated. Its figures belong to the combined device and are not recorded here.","measurements":[]},"environment":["state-liquid","env-aqueous","charged-surface-required"],"summary":"A surfactant-concentration difference along a free electrolyte surface drives a solutocapillary shear flow past a charged wall, whose streaming potential is the electrical output. Theoretical and numerical only; the route stays a candidate — the nearest physical device (Zhang 2026) runs the Marangoni flow as a co-driver beside capillary transport.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 22 (Zhang 2026 abstract read; the co-driver device recorded as a note under the parallel-driver rule)"}},{"id":"pathway:flexoelectric-vibration-harvester","name":"Flexoelectric vibration harvester","steps":["claim:vibration-drives-elastic","claim:elastic-produces-stress","claim:flexo-drives","claim:flexo-produces-charge","claim:surface-charge-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:flexoelectric-vibration-harvester"],"evidence":["source:yang-2025-flexoelectric-harvester"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K5","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"output voltage","value":"≈ 0.19 V average","value_numeric":0.19,"unit":"V","scope":"laboratory","conditions":"two-stage stepped epoxy cantilever with an unpolarised α-PVDF flexoelectric layer (60 × 10 mm, 45 μm) on a vibration exciter, sinusoidal 20 Hz, measured acceleration 0.915 g; off resonance (the 1.2 Hz resonance was beyond the shaker)","sources":["source:yang-2025-flexoelectric-harvester"],"year":2025,"note":"the paper's 3.58 V and 94.93 mW m⁻³ at resonance are theory and finite elements, not measurements, and are not recorded here"}]},"environment":["state-solid","medium-dielectric"],"summary":"Base vibration bends a dielectric cantilever; the bending strain gradient, not piezoelectricity, polarises the unpolarised PVDF layer and the electrodes deliver charge to a load. Demonstrated off resonance; resonance is an amplifying operating condition, not a step of the composition.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 20 (the last two candidate compositions audited as physics; source read in full)"}},{"id":"pathway:vibration-elastocaloric-cooler","name":"Vibration-driven elastocaloric cooler (proposed)","steps":["claim:vibration-drives-elastic","claim:elastic-produces-stress","claim:elastocaloric-drives","claim:elastocaloric-converts-cooling"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:vibration-elastocaloric-cooler"],"evidence":["source:kumar-2019-vibration-refrigeration"],"status":"proposed","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K3","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"predicted source cooling (finite-element model)","value":"≈ 0.2 K in ≈ 50 s","datum_kind":"simulated","scope":"model","conditions":"ten cantilevers with off-axis 0.5BZT–0.5BCT patches, 2 mm imposed tip motion, 324 K, 1.5 Hz; 0.02 K per element; ≈ 2 K predicted from 358 K","sources":["source:kumar-2019-vibration-refrigeration"],"year":2019,"note":"model-only; no device has been built or measured"}]},"environment":["state-solid"],"summary":"Ambient vibration stresses off-axis ferroelectric patches on a cantilever elastocalorically and periodic contacts carry the heat away — proposed and modelled by finite elements, never built. The genuine open question behind this route is whether ambient vibration supplies enough stress, timing and heat transfer for sustained cooling.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 20 (the last two candidate compositions audited as physics; abstract read)"}},{"id":"pathway:bending-actuated-elastocaloric-cooler","name":"Bending-actuated NiTi elastocaloric air cooler","steps":["claim:elastocaloric-drives","claim:elastocaloric-converts-cooling"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:bending-elastocaloric-air-cooler"],"evidence":["source:li-2022-bending-elastocaloric"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":["mechanical:stress-change","mechanical:stress-crosses-transformation-threshold","mechanical:stress-cycling"],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"air temperature reduction","value":"5.5 K","value_numeric":5.5,"unit":"K","scope":"device","conditions":"single-row bent NiTi sheets with an air duct, cooling cycle; 7.20 % maximum surface strain on the tension side at a specific driving force of 5.64 N g⁻¹","sources":["source:li-2022-bending-elastocaloric"],"year":2022},{"quantity":"specific cooling power","value":"0.137 W g⁻¹","value_numeric":0.137,"unit":"W/g","scope":"device","conditions":"same single-row cooler","sources":["source:li-2022-bending-elastocaloric"],"year":2022},{"quantity":"cooling power","value":"11.5 W","value_numeric":11.5,"unit":"W","scope":"device","conditions":"multi-row NiTi sheets","sources":["source:li-2022-bending-elastocaloric"],"year":2022}]},"environment":["state-solid"],"summary":"An actuator bends NiTi sheets through their transformation at two orders of magnitude less force than tension; the recorded driver is mechanical stress supplied by the actuator, which is why this pathway starts at the stress row and is not evidence that ambient vibration can drive the cooler.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 20 (the last two candidate compositions audited as physics; abstract read)"}},{"id":"pathway:thermal-osmosis-electrokinetic-generator","name":"Thermal-osmosis electrokinetic generator","steps":["claim:temperature-drives-thermo-osmosis","claim:thermo-osmosis-produces-flow","claim:fluid-flow-carrier-drives-streaming","claim:streaming-produces-ions","claim:ionic-current-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:thermal-osmosis-electrokinetic-generator"],"evidence":["source:huang-2021-membrane-distiller-electrokinetic","source:luo-2023-thermal-osmosis-electrokinetic"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K5","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"electrical output power density","value":"1.12 W/m²","value_numeric":1.12,"unit":"W/m²","metric":"power-density","basis":"as reported in the abstract; the area basis is not stated there","normalization":{"kind":"area","basis":"unstated"},"scope":"laboratory","conditions":"thermal-osmosis PTFE membrane (1.0 μm pores) plus an electrokinetic microchannel module; ΔT = 50 °C; real seawater feed","sources":["source:luo-2023-thermal-osmosis-electrokinetic"],"year":2023},{"quantity":"freshwater production rate","value":"18.46 kg/m²·h","value_numeric":18.46,"unit":"kg/(m²·h)","scope":"laboratory","conditions":"the same device and run; ΔT = 50 °C","sources":["source:luo-2023-thermal-osmosis-electrokinetic"],"year":2023,"note":"the co-product, recorded because the source reports the two together; not an energy figure"}]},"environment":["state-liquid","medium-membrane","env-aqueous","temp-gradient-required","charged-surface-required"],"summary":"A temperature difference drives vapour transport through a hydrophobic membrane, producing pressurised fresh water; the water then traverses a charged electrokinetic microchannel module and delivers electrical power — the explicit-flow spelling of the nanofluidic thermo-osmotic converter, with a bulk stream between the two mechanisms.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 21 (TOEC route search; abstracts read; Huang 2021's figures not recorded until its text is read)"}},{"id":"pathway:combustion-microthermophotovoltaic-generator","name":"Combustion-driven micro-thermophotovoltaic generator","steps":["claim:combustion-drives","claim:combustion-produces-hot-gas","claim:hot-gas-drives-thermal-emission","claim:thermal-emission-produces-photons","claim:photons-drive-pv","claim:pv-produces-pairs","claim:pairs-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:micro-thermophotovoltaic-generator"],"evidence":["source:chan-2013-microthermophotovoltaic"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":["light:above-bandgap-photon-flux"],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"heat-to-electricity efficiency","value":"2.5 %","value_numeric":0.025,"unit":"1","metric":"conversion-efficiency","basis":"electrical output of the generator (after its maximum-power-point converter) over the 13.7 W input thermal power to the propane microcombustor the abstract states — the fuel's heat release, which under complete combustion is the route's chemical input; the abstract calls the figure heat-to-electricity (pass 45)","scope":"laboratory","conditions":"propane microcombustor at up to 800 °C; photonic-crystal selective emitter; four 0.55 eV GaInAsSb cells with maximum-power-point tracking; the simplified system predicted at 2.7 %","sources":["source:chan-2013-microthermophotovoltaic"],"year":2013},{"quantity":"electrical power density","value":"344 mW over 1 cm²","value_numeric":3440,"unit":"W/m²","metric":"power-density","basis":"electric power per emitter/cell area","normalization":{"kind":"area","basis":"active-device-area"},"scope":"laboratory","conditions":"the same run; 13.7 W thermal input","sources":["source:chan-2013-microthermophotovoltaic"],"year":2013}]},"environment":["state-gas","temp-gradient-required"],"summary":"Fuel burns in a microcombustor, the hot gas heats a selective emitter, and the emitter's thermal radiation is converted by low-bandgap photovoltaic cells — the combustion-fed cousin of the thermophotovoltaic pathway, recorded as its own composition because its driver is chemical, not a temperature gradient supplied from outside.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 22 (Scholar runs, the parallel-driver rule and the head rule; abstract read)"}},{"id":"pathway:radioluminescent-nuclear-battery","name":"Radioluminescent (beta-photovoltaic) nuclear battery","steps":["claim:binding-drives-decay","claim:decay-produces-particles","claim:beta-drives-radioluminescence","claim:radioluminescence-produces-photons","claim:photons-drive-pv","claim:pv-produces-pairs","claim:pairs-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:radioluminescent-nuclear-battery"],"evidence":["source:russo-2017-radioluminescent-nuclear-battery"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":["light:above-bandgap-photon-flux"],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"total power conversion efficiency","value":"0.289 %","value_numeric":0.00289,"unit":"1","metric":"conversion-efficiency","basis":"electrical output over the β⁻ source power, volumetric configuration at 15 mCi ⁶³Ni and 200 μm","scope":"laboratory","conditions":"⁶³Ni chloride solution mixed with ZnS:Cu,Al phosphor on an InGaP cell; the planar configuration reached 0.0638 % at 50 μm","sources":["source:russo-2017-radioluminescent-nuclear-battery"],"year":2017},{"quantity":"electrical power density","value":"3.35 nW/cm²","value_numeric":0.0000335,"unit":"W/m²","metric":"power-density","basis":"electrical power per cell area at 30 mCi ⁶³Ni","normalization":{"kind":"area","basis":"active-device-area"},"scope":"laboratory","conditions":"volumetric configuration","sources":["source:russo-2017-radioluminescent-nuclear-battery"],"year":2017}]},"environment":["state-solid"],"summary":"A β⁻ emitter excites a phosphor and a photovoltaic cell matched to the phosphor's spectrum converts the light — the indirect (scintillator) nuclear battery, distinct from the betavoltaic cell that absorbs the electrons directly.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 22 (Scholar runs, the parallel-driver rule and the head rule; abstract read)"}},{"id":"pathway:evaporation-driven-generator","name":"Evaporation-driven oscillator generator","steps":["claim:humidity-drives-evaporation","claim:evaporation-produces-motion","claim:motion-drives-induction","claim:induction-produces-carriers","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:evaporation-driven-generator"],"evidence":["source:chen-2015-evaporation"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"electrical power (burst peak)","value":"60 μW","value_numeric":0.00006,"unit":"W","scope":"laboratory","conditions":"oscillatory HYDRA engine coupled to an electromagnetic generator, 100 kΩ load, water at 30 °C, HYDRAs covering 9.6 cm × 7.6 cm","sources":["source:chen-2015-evaporation"],"year":2015},{"quantity":"electrical power (time average)","value":"1.8 μW","value_numeric":0.0000018,"unit":"W","scope":"laboratory","conditions":"the same run; waiting periods between bursts bring the average down","sources":["source:chen-2015-evaporation"],"year":2015,"note":"per the authors, the microwatt scale is significant for the small water area covered; power density is not stated per area"}]},"environment":["env-aqueous"],"summary":"Evaporation from a water surface drives hygroscopic artificial muscles in a shutter-controlled oscillator whose piston-like motion turns an electromagnetic generator — the evaporation-driven engine's electrical sibling, recorded on the induction spelling because the generator is a magnet stack rotating between coils.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 23 (triage of the released candidates; source read in full)"}},{"id":"pathway:thermocapillary-piezoelectric-micro-heat-engine","name":"Thermocapillary piezoelectric micro heat engine","steps":["claim:temperature-drives-marangoni","claim:marangoni-produces-pressure","claim:pressure-drives-elastic","claim:elastic-produces-stress-carrier","claim:elastic-stress-drives-piezo","claim:piezo-produces-charge","claim:surface-charge-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":[],"evidence":["source:glockner-naterer-2006-thermocapillary-pumping","source:odukoya-naterer-2013-thermocapillary-mhe","source:glockner-naterer-2007-microfluidic-power"],"status":"proposed","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K3","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"predicted output voltage","value":"1.2–1.3 mV","value_numeric":0.00125,"unit":"V","datum_kind":"simulated","scope":"model","conditions":"simulated closed 60 × 60 × 15,000 μm channel on a PZT substrate, the thickest membrane; 0.5 mV predicted for a 300 nm membrane","sources":["source:odukoya-naterer-2013-thermocapillary-mhe"],"year":2013,"note":"a model result, never a laboratory measurement"},{"quantity":"predicted system efficiency","value":"≈ 1.6 %","value_numeric":0.016,"unit":"1","metric":"conversion-efficiency","basis":"analytical model with the electromechanical coupling factor and frictional irreversibilities, over the range of displacement considered","datum_kind":"simulated","scope":"model","conditions":"the same simulated geometry","sources":["source:odukoya-naterer-2013-thermocapillary-mhe"],"year":2013,"note":"a model result, never a laboratory measurement"}]},"environment":["state-liquid"],"summary":"A temperature gradient drives a confined droplet by thermocapillarity; the translating plug compresses trapped gas, and the resulting pressure is proposed to flex a PZT membrane and generate electricity. The thermocapillary pumping was experimentally characterised; membrane voltage and full-cycle efficiency were modelled rather than measured.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 23 (triage of the released candidates; Odukoya 2013 read in full; recorded proposed at K3 because the composition itself has not been observed)"}},{"id":"pathway:waterwheel-electric-generator","name":"Waterwheel electric generator (pico hydro)","steps":["claim:gravity-drives-descent","claim:descent-produces-waterwheel-motion","claim:motion-drives-induction","claim:induction-produces-carriers","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:waterwheel-generator"],"evidence":["source:asim-2022-pico-waterwheel"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K7","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"electrical load powered","value":"1.54 kW of appliances on a 3 kW generator","value_numeric":1540,"unit":"W","scope":"field","conditions":"undershot pico waterwheel, C-shape blades immersed 4 inches, in an irrigation-channel test rig; voltage and current measured at full load (three 100 W bulbs, two 120 W fans, a 1 kW cutting machine)","sources":["source:asim-2022-pico-waterwheel"],"year":2022,"note":"the connected load the generator ran, as the paper lists it; the generator's measured electrical output is not quoted here"},{"quantity":"overall efficiency of the waterwheel-generator system","value":"66.42%","value_numeric":0.6642,"unit":"1","metric":"conversion-efficiency","basis":"generator electrical output P_out = v_g·i_g over P_in, as Equation 12 defines the overall efficiency of the system (Section 4.9); the paper does not state P_in's formula at that point — Equation 11's power coefficient uses the power available in the stream, but Section 4.9 does not say Equation 12's P_in is the same denominator","datum_kind":"measured","scope":"laboratory","conditions":"the C-shape-blade experimental turbine at a fully immersed depth of 4 inches, connected to a 3 kW electric generator, at full load, voltage and current of the circuit measured","sources":["source:asim-2022-pico-waterwheel"],"year":2022,"note":"the number the paper itself measured; the 66.42 % is an electrical-output figure for the wheel plus generator, the pathway's own boundary"}]},"environment":["state-liquid"],"summary":"Water falling through a small head turns an undershot waterwheel whose shaft directly turns an electrical generator — the oldest hydroelectric spelling, distinct from the turbine's blade lift, recorded on the direct waterwheel-to-induction route with a pico-hydro rig that ran household loads.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 23 (triage of the released candidates; Asim 2022 read on the publisher's page)"}},{"id":"pathway:thermal-expansion-flexoelectric-response","name":"Thermal-expansion flexoelectric thermopolarization","steps":["claim:thermal-expansion-drives","claim:thermal-expansion-produces-stress","claim:flexo-drives","claim:flexo-produces-charge","claim:surface-charge-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":[],"evidence":["source:iwakiri-2026-thermopolarization"],"status":"observed","observed_through":"claim:flexo-produces-charge","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K4","performance":{"notes":"No output power, efficiency or harvested energy is reported; the finite-element temperature modulation (≈ 0.5 K at the 1 kHz heater drive) is model scope and is not recorded as a measurement.","measurements":[]},"environment":["state-solid","medium-dielectric","temp-gradient-required"],"summary":"A spatial temperature gradient produces non-uniform thermal expansion and a strain gradient that drives flexoelectric polarization in insulating solids. Voltage and polarization-screening current were experimentally detected, but no electrical load or output power was reported, so heat-to-charge conversion is observed while electrical-work conversion remains undemonstrated. Thermopolarization names the measured ∇T-induced polarization, not a unique microscopic mechanism — Iwakiri et al. attribute their component to thermomechanical flexoelectricity because it scales with thermal expansion and a strain-gradient FEM reproduces it, while the historical \"proper\" thermopolarization (the atlas's separate phenomenon) is the direct residual response distinguished from that contribution.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 24 (the second reader's status (a) — observed, observed_through the flexoelectric charge step; the final step remains unsupported by the evidence)"}},{"id":"pathway:thermoacoustic-piezoelectric-harvester","name":"Thermoacoustic piezoelectric harvester","steps":["claim:thermoacoustic-drives","claim:thermoacoustic-produces-sound","claim:acoustic-wave-drives-piezoelectric","claim:piezo-produces-charge","claim:surface-charge-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:thermoacoustic-piezoelectric-harvester"],"evidence":["source:zheng-2022-thermoacoustic-pan","source:smoker-2012-thermoacoustic-piezoelectric"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":["thermal:gradient-above-thermoacoustic-critical"],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"open-circuit voltage (peak)","value":"102 V","value_numeric":102,"unit":"V","scope":"laboratory","conditions":"3 × 3 cm² thermally stabilised PAN nanofibre membrane in the sound field of a mini thermoacoustic engine, the device at 280 °C; ran 30 LEDs and charged a lithium battery and a capacitor; stable for at least 2 h","sources":["source:zheng-2022-thermoacoustic-pan"],"year":2022},{"quantity":"short-circuit current (peak)","value":"10 μA","value_numeric":0.00001,"unit":"A","scope":"laboratory","conditions":"the same engine-driven run","sources":["source:zheng-2022-thermoacoustic-pan"],"year":2022},{"quantity":"areal power density","value":"392 mW m⁻²","value_numeric":0.392,"unit":"W/m²","scope":"laboratory","conditions":"under loudspeaker sound, 118 dB at 230 Hz (118 V open-circuit, 12 μA short-circuit), room temperature to 450 °C — the device characterisation, not the engine-driven run","sources":["source:zheng-2022-thermoacoustic-pan"],"year":2022,"note":"abstract figures; the engine-driven output is the pathway's demonstration"}]},"environment":["state-gas","temp-gradient-required"],"summary":"A thermoacoustic engine's sound field strains a piezoelectric nanofibre membrane, whose charge runs a load — the piezoelectric sibling of the linear-alternator generator, recorded from the authors' engine-driven run. The authors call the membrane \"acoustoelectric\"; the atlas keeps that name for Weinreich carrier drag, a different coupling. The earlier demonstration is Smoker et al. 2012, a standing-wave resonator exciting a piezoelectric diaphragm, validated on a prototype without published output figures.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 25 (known device recorded from the abstract; the second reader ruled it wrong-coupling for the acoustoelectric route)"}},{"id":"pathway:thermoacoustic-triboelectric-harvester","name":"Thermoacoustic triboelectric harvester","steps":["claim:thermoacoustic-drives","claim:thermoacoustic-produces-sound","claim:acoustic-wave-drives-triboelectric","claim:tribo-produces-charge","claim:surface-charge-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:thermoacoustic-triboelectric-harvester"],"evidence":["source:li-2026-thermoacoustic-teng"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":["thermal:gradient-above-thermoacoustic-critical"],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"electrical power (peak)","value":"0.49 mW","value_numeric":0.00049,"unit":"W","scope":"laboratory","conditions":"piston-assisted thermoacoustic engine driving a honeycomb freestanding contact-separation triboelectric nanogenerator at an 80 MΩ load; stable oscillation at heating temperatures around 150 °C","sources":["source:li-2026-thermoacoustic-teng"],"year":2026},{"quantity":"operating temperature","value":"≈ 150 °C heating","value_numeric":423,"unit":"K","scope":"laboratory","conditions":"the heating temperature at which the engine's self-sustained oscillation is stable","sources":["source:li-2026-thermoacoustic-teng"],"year":2026,"note":"storage observed separately, not recorded as power: four stacked units charged 1 μF to 17.05 V in 10 s and, with power management, ran a wireless temperature sensor"}]},"environment":["state-gas","temp-gradient-required"],"summary":"A thermoacoustic engine produces pressure oscillations that actuate a piston-coupled contact–separation triboelectric generator; the electrical output powers storage and a wireless sensor.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 27 (the second reader's spelling; the piston is apparatus at the gas–solid boundary, recorded as an interface)"}},{"id":"pathway:regenerative-elastocaloric-heat-pump","name":"Regenerative elastocaloric heat pump","steps":["claim:elastocaloric-drives","claim:elastocaloric-converts-heating"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:regenerative-elastocaloric-heat-pump"],"evidence":["source:tusek-2016"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":["mechanical:stress-change","mechanical:stress-crosses-transformation-threshold","mechanical:stress-cycling"],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K7","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"water-side temperature span","value":"15.3 K","value_numeric":15.3,"unit":"K","scope":"device","conditions":"regenerative elastocaloric heat pump with NiTi plates cycled through the superelastic transformation; water-side span between the hot and cold outlets","sources":["source:tusek-2016"],"year":2016},{"quantity":"specific heating power","value":"up to 800 W kg⁻¹","value_numeric":800,"unit":"W/kg","scope":"device","conditions":"the same device, per kilogram of elastocaloric material","sources":["source:tusek-2016"],"year":2016},{"quantity":"coefficient of performance (heating)","value":"up to 7","value_numeric":7,"scope":"device","conditions":"maximum COP reported for the same device","sources":["source:tusek-2016"],"year":2016}]},"environment":["state-solid"],"summary":"An active regenerator of superelastic NiTi plates, cycled through their stress-induced transformation, pumps heat across a 15.3 K water-side span with specific heating power up to 800 W per kilogram and COP up to 7 — the heat-pumping face of the elastocaloric effect, beside the bending-actuated cooler.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 31 (the second reader asked for Tušek 2016's regime on a pathway of its own; abstract read)"}},{"id":"pathway:thermoelectric-generator","name":"Thermoelectric generator","steps":["claim:seebeck-drives","claim:seebeck-produces-carriers","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:thermoelectric-generator"],"evidence":["source:rowe-2006","source:snyder-toberer-2008","source:goldsmid-2016"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"module conversion efficiency","value":"12.0%","value_numeric":0.12,"unit":"1","metric":"conversion-efficiency","basis":"module: electrical output over heat flow measured at the cold side","parameters":{"T_h_K":850,"T_c_K":300},"scope":"module","conditions":"Bi₂Te₃/skutterudite segmented 8-couple module, T_h = 850 K, T_c = 300 K (ΔT = 550 K), matched load; heat flow measured at the cold side","sources":["source:zhang-2017-segmented-teg"],"year":2017,"note":"record for a segmented module at the time of publication"}]},"environment":["state-solid","temp-gradient-required"],"summary":"Heat flows through n- and p-type legs; the Seebeck voltage drives the load. Used from radioisotope generators to waste-heat recovery.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:thermionic-converter","name":"Thermionic converter","steps":["claim:thermionic-drives","claim:thermionic-produces-carriers","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:thermionic-converter"],"evidence":["source:hatsopoulos-gyftopoulos-1973"],"status":"prototype","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K7","environment":["env-vacuum","temp-high"],"summary":"A cathode above 1500 K emits electrons collected across a caesium-vapour gap; flown in space reactors.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:thermoacoustic-generator","name":"Thermoacoustic engine with linear alternator","steps":["claim:thermoacoustic-drives","claim:thermoacoustic-produces-sound","claim:acoustic-drives-linear-alternator","claim:linear-alternator-produces","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:thermoacoustic-engine"],"evidence":["source:swift-1988"],"status":"prototype","regime_provides":["thermal:gradient-above-thermoacoustic-critical"],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K7","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"thermal-to-electrical conversion efficiency at the maximum-efficiency point","value":"19.8%","value_numeric":0.198,"unit":"1","metric":"conversion-efficiency","basis":"electric power over heat input to the engine, as the abstract states it; the paper's heat-input measurement is not on record (abstract only)","datum_kind":"measured","parameters":{"T_h_K":923.15,"T_c_K":288.15},"scope":"laboratory","conditions":"1 kW-class travelling-wave thermoacoustic electrical generator with a linear alternator; 4.0 MPa mean pressure; 64 Hz after 4.5 % mole fraction argon; electric output 970 W at this point; heating 650 °C, cooling 15 °C","sources":["source:wu-2014-1kw-thermoacoustic-generator"],"year":2014},{"quantity":"maximum electric power","value":"1043 W","value_numeric":1043,"unit":"W","metric":"power","basis":"electric output at the maximum-power operating point","datum_kind":"measured","scope":"laboratory","conditions":"the same generator; 17.7 % thermal-to-electrical efficiency at this point, not the maximum efficiency","sources":["source:wu-2014-1kw-thermoacoustic-generator"],"year":2014},{"quantity":"thermal-to-electric conversion efficiency at the maximum-efficiency point","value":"18.4%","value_numeric":0.184,"unit":"1","metric":"conversion-efficiency","basis":"electric power over heat input to the engine, as the abstract states it; the paper's heat-input measurement is not on record (abstract only)","datum_kind":"measured","parameters":{"T_h_K":923.15,"T_c_K":298.15},"scope":"laboratory","conditions":"three-stage travelling-wave thermoacoustic electric generator, units joined end-to-end by slim resonance tubes with a linear alternator as a bypass at the end of each; 6 MPa pressurised helium; electric output 3.46 kW at this point; heating 650 °C, cooling 25 °C","sources":["source:bi-2017-5kw-thermoacoustic-generator"],"year":2017},{"quantity":"maximum electric power","value":"4.69 kW","value_numeric":4690,"unit":"W","metric":"power","basis":"electric output at the maximum-power operating point","datum_kind":"measured","scope":"laboratory","conditions":"the same three-stage generator; 15.6 % thermal-to-electric efficiency at this point, not the maximum efficiency","sources":["source:bi-2017-5kw-thermoacoustic-generator"],"year":2017}]},"environment":["state-gas","temp-gradient-required"],"summary":"Heat makes a gas column oscillate; the oscillation drives a piston in a coil.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:pyroelectric-harvester","name":"Pyroelectric harvester","steps":["claim:pyro-drives","claim:pyro-produces-charge","claim:surface-charge-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:pyroelectric-harvester"],"evidence":["source:bowen-2014-pyro"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","environment":["state-solid","transient-only"],"summary":"A polar film cycled in temperature releases surface charge into a load.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:thermogalvanic-cell","name":"Thermogalvanic cell","steps":["claim:thermogalvanic-drives","claim:thermogalvanic-produces-ions","claim:ionic-current-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:thermocell"],"evidence":["source:quickenden-mua-1995","source:dupont-2017"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","environment":["env-aqueous","temp-gradient-required"],"summary":"Two identical electrodes at different temperatures in one redox electrolyte.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:thermally-regenerative-electrochemical-cycle","name":"Thermally regenerative electrochemical cycle","steps":["claim:trec-drives","claim:trec-produces-ions","claim:ionic-current-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":[],"evidence":["source:lee-2014-trec"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K5","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"heat-to-electricity cycle efficiency (no heat recuperation)","value":"3.7%","value_numeric":0.037,"unit":"1","metric":"conversion-efficiency","basis":"electrical energy per cycle over heat absorbed, cycled between 10 °C and 60 °C, without heat recuperation","parameters":{"T_h_K":333.15,"T_c_K":283.15},"scope":"device","conditions":"copper hexacyanoferrate cathode against a Cu/Cu²⁺ anode, a thermally regenerative electrochemical cycle charged at one temperature and discharged at the other","sources":["source:lee-2014-trec"],"year":2014},{"quantity":"heat-to-electricity cycle efficiency (50 % heat recuperation assumed)","value":"5.7%","value_numeric":0.057,"unit":"1","metric":"conversion-efficiency","basis":"the same cycle with 50 % of the rejected heat assumed recuperated into the heating step","datum_kind":"derived","parameters":{"T_h_K":333.15,"T_c_K":283.15},"scope":"model","conditions":"the same device and temperatures; the recuperation is an assumption, not a measured heat exchanger","sources":["source:lee-2014-trec"],"year":2014,"note":"the figure the abstract leads with; the atlas records it as a model datum because the 50 % recuperation is assumed"}]},"environment":["env-aqueous","temp-gradient-required"],"summary":"Charge cold, discharge warm; 5.7% efficiency between 10 and 60 °C with heat recuperation.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:thermomagnetic-generator","name":"Thermomagnetic generator","steps":["claim:thermomagnetic-drives","claim:thermomagnetic-produces-flux","claim:magnetic-flux-drives-induction","claim:induction-produces-carriers","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:thermomagnetic-generator"],"evidence":["source:kishore-priya-2018","source:waske-2019"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":["thermal:transition-temperature-straddled","thermal:cyclic-hot-cold-exposure"],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"electrical output power","value":"0.8 mW","value_numeric":0.0008,"unit":"W","parameters":{"T_transition_K":300,"cycle_frequency_Hz":0.8},"scope":"device","conditions":"Waske et al. 2019 supplementary information: the genus-3 (pretzel) magnetic circuit with La-Fe-Co-Si (CALORIVAC C) plates of transition temperature 300 K, the fluid circuits switched by ΔT = 30 K at the experimentally optimal cycle frequency of 0.8 Hz (cycle time 1.25 s), fluid flux 0.4 l/min; falls to 0.01 mW when the genus is reduced to 1","sources":["source:waske-2019"],"year":2019,"note":"read from the open supplementary PDF (fluid temperatures measured with four Pt1000 sensors at the plate-stack inlet); the main text's peak figures and their exact temperature pair are behind the paywall, and the 285 K / 315 K endpoints appear there only as the simulation's B–H curves, so T_h_K / T_c_K are not recorded"}]},"environment":["state-solid","temp-gradient-required"],"summary":"A gadolinium element switching between hot and cold changes the flux through a coil.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:thermophotovoltaic","name":"Thermophotovoltaic conversion","steps":["claim:thermal-emission-drives","claim:thermal-emission-produces-photons","claim:photons-drive-pv","claim:pv-produces-pairs","claim:pairs-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:thermophotovoltaic-cell"],"evidence":["source:lapotin-2022"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":["light:above-bandgap-photon-flux"],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K7","performance":{"notes":"published models predict thermophotovoltaic efficiencies above 50 % with better photon recycling (LaPotin et al. 2022 cite them) — a projection, not a thermodynamic bound, so it lives here, not in the limit field","measurements":[{"quantity":"electrical power density","value":"2.39 W/cm²","value_numeric":2.39,"unit":"W/cm²","metric":"power-density","basis":"electrical output per unit cell area at the maximum-efficiency operating point","normalization":{"kind":"area","basis":"active-device-area"},"parameters":{"T_emitter_K":2673.15},"scope":"device","conditions":"the 1.4/1.2 eV two-junction III–V cell at (41.1 ± 1) % efficiency with a 2400 °C emitter","sources":["source:lapotin-2022"],"year":2022},{"quantity":"thermophotovoltaic cell efficiency","value":"41.1 ± 1 %","value_numeric":0.411,"unit":"1","metric":"conversion-efficiency","basis":"electrical output over the net radiative heat absorbed by the cell, sub-bandgap radiation reflected back to the emitter — the emitter is the route's hot reservoir, so the net radiation it delivers to the cell is the heat the route draws from its source (the route's Q_h); the emitter's own supply losses lie outside the route's thermodynamic boundary, which is why this is the route's figure and not a stage figure (pass 45)","parameters":{"T_emitter_K":2673.15},"scope":"device","conditions":"1.4/1.2 eV two-junction III–V tandem with a highly reflective back-surface reflector, emitter at 2400 °C, power density 2.39 W cm⁻²; a 1.2/1.0 eV device reached 39.3 ± 1 %","sources":["source:lapotin-2022"],"year":2022,"note":"the cell temperature is not in the abstract, so T_c_K is not recorded and the Carnot check stays unresolved on this datum"}]},"environment":["temp-high"],"summary":"A 2400 °C emitter radiates into a tandem III–V cell with a back reflector; 40% measured.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:rankine-steam-plant","name":"Steam Rankine plant","steps":["claim:expansion-drives","claim:expansion-produces-motion","claim:motion-drives-generator","claim:generator-produces-carriers","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:rankine-cycle-plant"],"evidence":["source:bejan-2016","source:shaheed-2023-al-mosyab","source:nicol-2015-ieaccc-double-reheat"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[{"kind":"recirculating-work","energy_form":"mechanical","purpose":"feedwater pump","establishes":[],"conditions":["condensed working fluid is pumped from condenser pressure to boiler pressure before heat addition; pump work is an internal cycle load and whole-cycle net efficiency includes it","Al-Mosyab Unit 3 (Shaheed, Mohammed & Radhi 2023, read in full): three main boiler feedwater pumps and three condensate pumps with a deaerator return the condensate to the 152 bar main-steam pressure; the boiler feed pump appears in the unit's exergy ledger (Table 4)"],"evidence":["source:shaheed-2023-al-mosyab"],"note":"recorded on the reviewer's pass-36 ruling; not on pathway:steam-engine (a generic spelling demonstrated by the Rankine transducer — a pathway-specificity item for a later architecture audit) and not on pathway:nuclear-steam-plant (which owes the pressure-drop provider and awaits a source review of its named architecture)"}],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"net plant electrical efficiency","value":"47%","value_numeric":0.47,"unit":"1","metric":"conversion-efficiency","basis":"operating net electrical efficiency (electrical output to the 400 kV grid over fuel energy); fuel lower-heating-value basis; power-only (condensing) mode — an operating figure, not an annual one","parameters":{"T_turbine_inlet_K":853.15,"T_cooling_water_inlet_K":283.15},"scope":"plant","conditions":"Nordjylland unit 3, Denmark (415 MWe, commissioned 1998): once-through ultra-supercritical Benson tower boiler, double reheat, 580 °C / 580 °C / 580 °C at 29 MPa, 10 °C seawater cooling; 2005 performance in power-only mode at 100 % load — generator 411 MWe, auxiliaries 26 MWe, 385 MWe to grid, boiler efficiency 94.2 %, heat rate 7151.4 kJ/kWh on generator output; the world's most efficient pulverised-coal unit as of December 2014 per the IEA Clean Coal Centre","sources":["source:nicol-2015-ieaccc-double-reheat"],"year":2015,"note":"read in full in CCC/255 §7.2.6 and Table 4 (Poulsen & Bendixen 2006); the table's own 47.2 % (400 kV to grid) row sits beside a coal calorific value labelled gross (26 MJ/kg) while the text gives 25.2 MJ/kg LHV / 26.4 MJ/kg HHV, so the atlas records the text's explicit net-LHV statement; the second reader's Morrison 2008 IEA CCC citation (47 % LHV / 44.9 % HHV) could not be located — CCC/255 cites Morrison 2011 for the same fact; the steam temperature and cooling-water temperature are operating states, never the Carnot reservoirs"},{"quantity":"unit electrical load at the recorded operating state","value":"225 MW","value_numeric":225000000,"unit":"W","parameters":{"T_turbine_inlet_K":812.15,"T_cooling_water_inlet_K":297.15},"scope":"plant","conditions":"Al-Mosyab thermal power station, Iraq (completed 1990, four 300 MW units), Unit 3 at 225 MW load — Table 1 'general current operation condition': main steam 168 kg/s at 152 bar and 539 °C, crude-oil fuel 14.68 kg/s at NCV 10,074 kcal/kg, condenser pressure 0.1 bar, cooling-water temperature 24 °C, generator 3000 rpm; subcritical single-drum natural-circulation boiler, HP / IP / LP turbines, six closed feedwater heaters and a deaerator","sources":["source:shaheed-2023-al-mosyab"],"year":2023,"note":"the unit's readings, not the design condition (300 MW, 170 bar, 538 °C, 0.0653 bar, 23 °C cooling water); pressures stay in the conditions text — the registry has no pressure names; the operating-state temperatures never feed the Carnot bound"},{"quantity":"cycle thermal efficiency (energy balance of the readings)","value":"39.3%","value_numeric":0.393,"unit":"1","metric":"conversion-efficiency","basis":"first-law efficiency of the cycle from the authors' Engineering Equation Solver model of the Unit 3 readings (Table 4, 'cycle' row); the heat input is the heat added to the working fluid (boiler thermal efficiency 94 % in the same table), not the fuel's NCV","datum_kind":"derived","parameters":{"T_turbine_inlet_K":812.15,"T_cooling_water_inlet_K":297.15},"scope":"model","conditions":"derived from the actual 225 MW operating readings above; the same model gives second-law efficiency 34.91 % and exergy destruction 412.68 MW","sources":["source:shaheed-2023-al-mosyab"],"year":2023,"note":"Source-internal discrepancy: Table 4 reports cycle thermal efficiency 39.3%; surrounding prose reports 39.91%. The atlas records the tabulated value because Table 4 is the paper's declared energy/exergy result table; no reconciliation is supplied by the authors (Figure 2's condenser-pressure sweep gives 39.39 % at 0.06 bar falling to 37.97 % at 0.24 bar; the unit runs at 0.1 bar). Computed, not metered. Not a record figure: efficiency_record 0.47 stands"}]},"environment":["temp-gradient-required"],"summary":"Heat raises steam; the turbine turns the generator. Most of the world's thermal electricity.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:combustion-gas-turbine","name":"Combustion gas-turbine plant","steps":["claim:combustion-drives","claim:combustion-produces-hot-gas","claim:hot-gas-drives-expansion","claim:expansion-produces-motion","claim:motion-drives-generator","claim:generator-produces-carriers","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:gas-turbine-generator"],"evidence":["source:bejan-2016","source:dixon-hall-2014","source:al-mhanna-2024-isccs"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":["thermodynamic:expansion-pressure-drop"],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[{"kind":"recirculating-work","energy_form":"mechanical","purpose":"compressor","establishes":["thermodynamic:expansion-pressure-drop"],"conditions":["turbine shaft work drives the compressor that establishes the expansion pressure ratio; cycle net work is turbine work minus compressor work","the local plant of Al Mhanna 2024: air 505.36 kg/s compressed from 0.9981 bar to 9.4 bar (isentropic efficiency 0.883) before the combustor, turbine discharge 1 bar"],"evidence":["source:dixon-hall-2014","source:al-mhanna-2024-isccs"],"note":"a feedback branch (turbine motion → compressor → pressurised inlet → combustor → turbine), not a serial step, so it is metadata here and never a route claim; whole-cycle and net efficiencies include this back-work while the enumerated route is the useful-output causal spine"}],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","performance":{"notes":"model relation, not a bound of the real pathway: the ideal air-standard Brayton cycle's thermal efficiency is 1 − r_p^((1−γ)/γ) at pressure ratio r_p, with net work the turbine work minus the compressor work; a real cycle's net efficiency depends on both and on the turbine inlet temperature the materials allow","measurements":[{"quantity":"gas-turbine work output","value":"127 MW","value_numeric":127000000,"unit":"W","parameters":{"T_turbine_inlet_K":1323.15,"T_turbine_exhaust_K":813.85},"scope":"plant","conditions":"Table 3 'local plant data' of a 678 MW combined-cycle gas-turbine station in Oman (three gas turbines, two steam turbines; one gas-turbine train modelled): gas-turbine inlet 1050 °C, exhaust 540.7 °C; Table 2 plant inputs — air 505.36 kg/s at 26.6 °C and 0.9981 bar, compressor discharge 9.4 bar, natural-gas fuel 9.2 kg/s at 22.8 bar (LHV 43,662 kJ/kg, 92.5 % methane), turbine discharge 1 bar","sources":["source:al-mhanna-2024-isccs"],"year":2024,"note":"the steam turbine of the same train delivers 61.5 MW and the table's 46.93 % is the combined cycle's efficiency — (127 + 61.5) MW over 9.2 kg/s × 43,662 kJ/kg = 401.7 MW reproduces it exactly — so it belongs to no pathway the atlas spells (the gas-turbine share alone would be 127 / 401.7 ≈ 31.6 %, a derivation, not a source figure); the paper's Aspen Plus simulation reproduces the plant within 0.43–3.77 % (126.45 MW, 1010.46 °C, 556.93 °C, 46.28 %) and is not recorded"}]},"environment":["state-gas","temp-high"],"summary":"Fuel burns, hot gas expands through the turbine, the shaft turns the alternator.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:otec-plant","name":"Ocean thermal energy conversion plant","steps":["claim:otec-drives","claim:otec-produces-motion","claim:motion-drives-generator","claim:generator-produces-carriers","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":[],"evidence":["source:claude-1930","source:bejan-2016","source:lu-2024-otec-platform"],"status":"prototype","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K7","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"system thermal efficiency (design point)","value":"2.63%","value_numeric":0.0263,"unit":"1","metric":"device-stage-efficiency","basis":"the organic-Rankine stage alone: net cycle work W_net = W_T − W_P (turbine work minus working-fluid pump work) over the evaporator heat Q_e — the paper's Equations 7 and 9, read again in pass 45 — before the generator the pathway ends in; it reproduces the design value (0.0263 × 1608.56 kW = 42.3 kW net, the 50.3 kW turbine less ≈ 8 kW of pump work), which the plain turbine-over-evaporator ratio did not","datum_kind":"design-point","parameters":{"T_h_K":301.15,"T_c_K":277.15},"scope":"model","conditions":"design point of a land-based 50 kW R134a organic-Rankine OTEC platform: 28 °C warm-seawater source, 4 °C cold-seawater source; Table 1 state points ≈ 24.6 °C / 645.8 kPa evaporation and ≈ 8 °C / 387.6 kPa condensation; check values warm seawater 191.49 kg/s, cold seawater 183.93 kg/s, working fluid 7.648 kg/s, turbine output 50.3 kW","sources":["source:lu-2024-otec-platform"],"year":2024,"note":"a model-scope datum: it supplies no regime to the route; the initial thermodynamic calculation gave 3.22 % and 51.08 kW before the pressure-drop check"},{"quantity":"actual system thermal efficiency","value":"2.46%","value_numeric":0.0246,"unit":"1","metric":"conversion-efficiency","basis":"as reported: the authors' actual thermal efficiency in the stable-operation phase (Figure 12). The paper defines thermal efficiency as net cycle work over evaporator heat (Equation 9) and reports 2.46 % beside the 47.4 kW maximum grid-connected power without saying which numerator the actual figure uses — a route figure if the grid-connected power, an organic-Rankine-stage figure if the net cycle work; the boundary is unresolved (pass 45)","scope":"laboratory","conditions":"the same platform run on land with a heat-pump unit simulating the seawater; the conclusion states the heat source was held at 24–28 °C and the cold source at 4–8 °C, while Figure 11 shows the warm water at ≈ 27.5–30.5 °C and the cold water at ≈ 4.5–7 °C over the 6000 s run with the flows stepped from ≈ 530 to ≈ 740 m³/h; the turbine supply valve fully open from ≈ 3900 s","sources":["source:lu-2024-otec-platform"],"year":2024,"note":"no T_h_K / T_c_K: the paper prints no temperature pair for the operating point of the reported efficiency, and the run's temperatures are read only from Figure 11 (≈ 30 °C / ≈ 6.3 °C at the moment of peak power) — a graphical reading, not recorded as parameters; 28 °C / 4 °C is the design point, not this datum's"},{"quantity":"maximum grid-connected electrical power","value":"47.4 kW","value_numeric":47400,"unit":"W","scope":"laboratory","conditions":"the same run, at the end of the stable-operation phase (≈ 5400 s), at the highest warm-water temperature and flows of the run","sources":["source:lu-2024-otec-platform"],"year":2024,"note":"47.4 kW in the conclusions, 47.5 kW in the abstract; the design output is 50 kW"}]},"environment":["state-liquid","temp-gradient-required"],"summary":"Warm surface water evaporates a working fluid condensed by deep cold water; 100 kW-class plants have run.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:radiative-cooling-teg","name":"Night-time radiative-cooling thermoelectric generator","steps":["claim:sky-drives-radiative-cooling","claim:radiative-cooling-produces-gradient","claim:seebeck-drives","claim:seebeck-produces-carriers","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:radiative-cooler-teg"],"evidence":["source:raman-2019-night"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K4","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"electrical power density","value":"25 mW/m²","value_numeric":0.025,"unit":"W/m²","metric":"power-density","basis":"maximum-power-point thermoelectric electrical output (nearly 0.8 mW; J_sc 44 mA, V_oc 79 mV) normalised to the area of the 200 mm radiative-cooler disk","normalization":{"kind":"area","basis":"radiative-cooler-area"},"scope":"device","conditions":"clear-night rooftop experiment at Stanford, CA, late December 2017, dew point −1 to −3 °C, device 1 m above roof level; a 200 mm aluminium disk painted black (ε ≈ 0.95) as the sky-facing emitter on the cold side of a Marlow TG12-4 module (ZT = 0.71) inside a polystyrene enclosure with a 12.5 µm polyethylene wind cover; the hot side coupled to a finned 200 mm aluminium disk in ambient air","sources":["source:raman-2019-night"],"year":2019,"note":"read on the Cell Press page in the owner's Chrome (the article carries the PII S2542-4351(19)30412-X); the paper's 'pathways to improving performance … to 0.5 W/m²' is a projection with stated component improvements and is not recorded as a physical datum"}]},"environment":["temp-gradient-required"],"summary":"A sky-facing emitter cools the cold side of a thermoelectric module below ambient at night.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:piezoelectric-vibration-harvester","name":"Piezoelectric vibration harvester","steps":["claim:vibration-drives-resonance","claim:resonance-produces-stress","claim:piezo-drives","claim:piezo-produces-charge","claim:surface-charge-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:piezoelectric-harvester"],"evidence":["source:anton-sodano-2007","source:erturk-inman-2011","source:roundy-2003"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","environment":["state-solid"],"summary":"A tuned cantilever bends a piezoelectric layer; charge flows each half cycle.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:triboelectric-nanogenerator","name":"Triboelectric nanogenerator","steps":["claim:vibration-drives-tribo","claim:tribo-produces-charge","claim:surface-charge-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:triboelectric-nanogenerator"],"evidence":["source:fan-tian-wang-2012"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","environment":["state-solid","medium-dielectric"],"summary":"Two polymer films contact and separate; induced charge cycles through the load.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:electrostatic-vibration-harvester","name":"Electrostatic (electret) vibration harvester","steps":["claim:electrostatic-drives","claim:electrostatic-produces","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:electrostatic-harvester"],"evidence":["source:roundy-2003"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","environment":["state-solid","field-electric-required"],"summary":"A MEMS variable capacitor with an electret bias.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:electromagnetic-vibration-harvester","name":"Electromagnetic vibration harvester","steps":["claim:vibration-drives-resonance","claim:resonance-produces-motion","claim:motion-drives-induction","claim:induction-produces-carriers","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:electromagnetic-vibration-harvester"],"evidence":["source:beeby-2007"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"electrical power into a resistive load","value":"46 µW","value_numeric":0.000046,"unit":"W","metric":"power","basis":"power delivered into a 4 kΩ resistive load at the generator's resonance","scope":"device","conditions":"four magnets on an etched cantilever with a 2300-turn wound coil, component volume 0.1 cm³ and practical volume 0.15 cm³, driven at 0.59 m/s² acceleration at its 52 Hz resonance; 428 mV rms; 30 % of the power supplied from the environment delivered to the load","sources":["source:beeby-2007"],"year":2007,"note":"46 µW over the 0.15 cm³ practical volume is ≈ 307 µW/cm³ — a derivation from two abstract figures, not the paper's stated density"}]},"environment":["state-solid"],"summary":"A sprung magnet moves through a coil.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:magnetostrictive-harvester","name":"Magnetostrictive vibration harvester","steps":["claim:vibration-drives-resonance","claim:resonance-produces-stress","claim:villari-drives","claim:villari-produces-flux","claim:magnetic-flux-drives-induction","claim:induction-produces-carriers","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:magnetostrictive-harvester"],"evidence":["source:wang-yuan-2008"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","environment":["state-solid","medium-ferromagnet"],"summary":"Cyclic stress changes the magnetisation of a Galfenol rod inside a pickup coil.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:magnetoelectric-field-harvester","name":"Magnetoelectric stray-field harvester","steps":["claim:magnetoelectric-drives","claim:magnetoelectric-produces","claim:surface-charge-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:magnetoelectric-composite"],"evidence":["source:nan-2008"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","environment":["state-solid"],"summary":"An AC field strains the magnetostrictive layer, which stresses the bonded piezoelectric layer.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:wind-turbine","name":"Wind turbine","steps":["claim:flow-drives-lift","claim:lift-produces-motion","claim:motion-drives-generator","claim:generator-produces-carriers","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:wind-turbine"],"evidence":["source:betz-1920","source:dixon-hall-2014"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"peak rotor power coefficient","value":"≈ 0.45","value_numeric":0.45,"unit":"1","metric":"power-coefficient","basis":"rotor power coefficient on the free-stream kinetic power through the swept area","datum_kind":"derived","scope":"field","conditions":"Southwest Windpower Storm pre-prototype, a three-blade downwind variable-speed stall-regulated turbine rated 1.8 kW; deduced from field-test measured electrical power and dynamometer-measured alternator efficiency; a broad, flat curve near C_p ≈ 0.43 over a 4 m/s wind-speed range; preliminary, with definitive NWTC tests under way at the time","sources":["source:migliore-2005-nrel-cp-500-38157"],"year":2005,"note":"the atlas had carried 0.52 as an efficiency_record until pass 39 — the wrong quantity for a pathway that ends in electrical work; this is the rotor's coefficient, comparable with the Betz limit and nothing else"}]},"environment":["flow-required"],"summary":"Blade lift turns the rotor; the rotor turns the generator.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:hydroelectric-plant","name":"Hydroelectric plant","steps":["claim:gravity-drives-descent","claim:descent-produces-pressure","claim:hydraulic-drives-lift","claim:lift-produces-motion","claim:motion-drives-generator","claim:generator-produces-carriers","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:hydro-turbine"],"evidence":["source:dixon-hall-2014"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","performance":{"notes":"No thermodynamic ceiling below unity applies to a head → shaft → electrical conversion, so no bound is recorded; the losses are hydraulic and electrical.","measurements":[{"quantity":"water-to-wire plant efficiency","value":"60%","value_numeric":0.6,"unit":"1","metric":"conversion-efficiency","basis":"electrical output over the hydraulic power of the flow through the plant's gross head (water-to-wire), as the report states it; the report gives no formula and does not state the grid-side electrical boundary","datum_kind":"derived","scope":"plant","conditions":"Natel SLH100 hydroEngine (linearly moving foils rather than a rotor) at the Monroe Drop on the North Unit Irrigation District main canal, Madras, Oregon; 250 kW nameplate; gross head 4.1–5.1 m; maximum flow 331 cfs; maximum observed plant power 267 kW; commissioned September 2015","sources":["source:schneider-2017-monroe-hydro-doe"],"year":2017},{"quantity":"hydraulic efficiency of the hydroEngine","value":"73%","value_numeric":0.73,"unit":"1","metric":"device-stage-efficiency","basis":"the turbine stage alone: mechanical power delivered by the hydroEngine relative to the hydraulic power at its inlet, as the report states it (no formula given) — a subsystem figure, not the pathway's water-to-wire efficiency","datum_kind":"derived","scope":"plant","conditions":"the same installation at its 267 kW maximum","sources":["source:schneider-2017-monroe-hydro-doe"],"year":2017}]},"environment":["state-liquid"],"summary":"Water falls through the penstock, spins the turbine, turns the generator.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:reverse-electrodialysis-plant","name":"Reverse electrodialysis plant","steps":["claim:salinity-drives-red","claim:red-produces-ions","claim:ionic-current-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:reverse-electrodialysis-stack"],"evidence":["source:post-2007","source:logan-elimelech-2012"],"status":"prototype","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K7","environment":["env-aqueous","medium-membrane"],"summary":"Ion-selective membranes turn the mixing of river and sea water into a stack voltage.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:pressure-retarded-osmosis-plant","name":"Pressure-retarded osmosis plant","steps":["claim:salinity-drives-pro","claim:pro-produces-pressure","claim:hydraulic-drives-lift","claim:lift-produces-motion","claim:motion-drives-generator","claim:generator-produces-carriers","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:pressure-retarded-osmosis-plant"],"evidence":["source:loeb-1975","source:logan-elimelech-2012"],"status":"prototype","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K7","environment":["env-aqueous","medium-membrane"],"summary":"Fresh water permeates into pressurised seawater; the extra volume drives a turbine.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:photovoltaic-module","name":"Photovoltaic module","steps":["claim:pv-drives","claim:pv-produces-pairs","claim:pairs-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:photovoltaic-cell"],"evidence":["source:chapin-1954","source:shockley-queisser-1961","source:green-2024-tables"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":["light:above-bandgap-photon-flux"],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"confirmed module efficiency (crystalline silicon)","value":"24.7 ± 0.3 %","value_numeric":0.247,"unit":"1","metric":"conversion-efficiency","basis":"designated-area module efficiency under the global AM1.5 spectrum (1000 W/m²) at a cell temperature of 25 °C, independently confirmed","scope":"module","conditions":"Maxeon 112-cell crystalline-silicon module, 17,806 cm² designated area, V_oc 83.04 V, I_sc 6.384 A, fill factor 82.9 %, NREL 4/23 — Table 4 of Green et al. 2024 (Version 63); the multijunction module record in the same table is 32.65 ± 0.7 % (Sharp InGaP/GaAs/InGaAs, 965 cm²)","sources":["source:green-2024-tables"],"year":2024}]},"environment":["state-solid","illumination-required"],"summary":"Photons make electron–hole pairs; the junction separates them.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:solar-thermal-rankine","name":"Concentrating solar-thermal plant","steps":["claim:photothermal-drives","claim:photothermal-produces-gradient","claim:expansion-drives","claim:expansion-produces-motion","claim:motion-drives-generator","claim:generator-produces-carriers","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:solar-thermal-collector","transducer:rankine-cycle-plant"],"evidence":["source:bejan-2016"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","environment":["illumination-required","temp-gradient-required"],"summary":"Mirrors heat a receiver; the receiver drives a steam cycle.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:photoelectrochemical-water-splitting","name":"Photoelectrochemical water splitting","steps":["claim:pec-drives","claim:pec-converts-fuel"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:photoelectrochemical-cell"],"evidence":["source:fujishima-honda-1972","source:cheng-2018-pec-19-percent"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K5","performance":{"measurements":[]},"environment":["env-aqueous","illumination-required"],"summary":"Photogenerated carriers split water at a semiconductor–electrolyte interface.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:tandem-pec-gainp-gainas-1p78-1p26ev","name":"Tandem PEC photocathode, GaInP/GaInAs 1.78 / 1.26 eV (Cheng 2018)","steps":["claim:pec-drives","claim:pec-converts-fuel"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:photoelectrochemical-cell"],"evidence":["source:cheng-2018-pec-19-percent"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"variant_of":"pathway:photoelectrochemical-water-splitting","bounds":[{"constraint":"constraint:pec-tandem-gainp-gainas-1p78-1p26ev-limit","evidence":["source:cheng-2018-pec-19-percent","source:fountaine-2016-pec-limits"],"conditions":["the limit is computed for exactly this gap pair, 1.78 eV / 1.26 eV, in the SQwater framework; the global dual-junction maximum (40.0 % at 0.52 / 1.40 eV) reaches the same route through the phenomenon"],"note":"the first architecture-specific bound in the atlas: it lives here and never on the generic photoelectrochemical route"}],"knowledge_level":"K5","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"solar-to-hydrogen efficiency (acidic electrolyte)","value":"19.3%","value_numeric":0.193,"unit":"1","metric":"conversion-efficiency","basis":"PEC water splitting, dual-junction absorber, AM1.5G","datum_kind":"measured","scope":"device","conditions":"hydrogen free-energy output over incident simulated AM 1.5G solar power, unassisted; monolithic Ga₀.₄₁In₀.₅₉P / Ga₀.₈₉In₀.₁₁As tandem photocathode (1.78 / 1.26 eV) with a crystalline TiO₂ interlayer and Rh nanoparticle catalyst, acidic perchlorate electrolyte, the initial efficiency; the authors place it at 0.85 of the 22.8 % theoretical limit for this gap combination","sources":["source:cheng-2018-pec-19-percent"],"year":2018},{"quantity":"solar-to-hydrogen efficiency (neutral electrolyte)","value":"18.5%","value_numeric":0.185,"unit":"1","metric":"conversion-efficiency","basis":"PEC water splitting, dual-junction absorber, AM1.5G","datum_kind":"measured","scope":"device","conditions":"the same device in a buffered solution at pH 7, unassisted, under simulated AM 1.5G","sources":["source:cheng-2018-pec-19-percent"],"year":2018}]},"environment":["env-aqueous","illumination-required"],"summary":"Cheng et al.'s monolithic tandem photocathode — a GaInP/GaInAs dual junction of 1.78 and 1.26 eV, a TiO₂ interlayer and Rh catalyst — splits water unassisted at 19.3 % solar-to-hydrogen in acid, 0.85 of the theoretical limit for its own gap pair. A variant of the generic photoelectrochemical pathway on the same route, holding the data and the bound that belong to this architecture alone.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 46 (Cheng 2018 full text read on arXiv 1706.01493; Fountaine 2016 read)"}},{"id":"pathway:betavoltaic-battery","name":"Betavoltaic battery","steps":["claim:binding-drives-decay","claim:decay-produces-particles","claim:particles-drive-betavoltaic","claim:betavoltaic-produces-pairs","claim:pairs-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:betavoltaic-cell"],"evidence":["source:rappaport-1954","source:prelas-2014"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"energy conversion efficiency of a ¹⁴C perovskite betavoltaic cell","value":"10.79%","value_numeric":0.1079,"unit":"1","metric":"conversion-efficiency","basis":"battery output power over the isotope source's total decay power: J_sc × V_oc × FF / (E_avg × e × A) with A = 4.5 µCi per 1.0 cm² of active area and E_avg = 49.4 keV per decay (SI Equation 1: 0.142 nW / 1.316 nW); the nominal activity, no self-absorption correction","datum_kind":"derived","scope":"device","conditions":"FTO/SnO₂/MACl-FAPbI₃/Spiro-MeOTAD/¹⁴C-nanoparticle/CQD/FTO cell; J_sc 10.60 nA cm⁻², V_oc 76.92 mV, FF 17.41 %; I–V by sourcemeter over −0.1 to +0.8 V; over 15 h of continuous operation","sources":["source:kim-2026-c14-perovskite-betavoltaic"],"year":2026},{"quantity":"total energy conversion efficiency of the 4H-SiC betavoltaics under a ⁶³Ni source","value":"2.34–2.56%","value_range":[0.0234,0.0256],"unit":"1","metric":"conversion-efficiency","basis":"battery output power over the isotope source power A·E_ave·q (Equation 1); η = η_s × η_d, the source efficiency η_s ≈ 35 % for 500 nm ⁶³Ni with single-side emission; an aggregate range over the measured devices (Table 4, 'This work (SiC)') — the paper gives no per-device tuple, so no scalar is recorded and the upper end is never a record","datum_kind":"derived","scope":"device","conditions":"4H-SiC PIN devices under a ⁶³Ni source of 1 × 3 cm² active area and 15 mCi total activity; V_oc 1.22–1.41 V, FF 0.81–0.89","sources":["source:zhang-2025-sic-betavoltaic"],"year":2025},{"quantity":"semiconductor device efficiency η_d of the best 4H-SiC device under ⁶³Ni","value":"7.31%","value_numeric":0.0731,"unit":"1","metric":"device-stage-efficiency","basis":"the semiconductor stage alone: output power relative to the beta power leaving the source (η_d = η / η_s), excluding the source's self-absorption — never the battery's efficiency against the isotope's decay power","datum_kind":"measured","scope":"device","conditions":"I_sc 2.91 nA, V_oc 1.41 V, FF 0.81 under the 15 mCi ⁶³Ni source (Table 3); 14.88 % for the same device under an electron beam","sources":["source:zhang-2025-sic-betavoltaic"],"year":2025}]},"environment":["state-solid","radioisotope-required"],"summary":"Beta particles make carrier pairs in a junction for as long as the isotope lasts.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:radioisotope-thermoelectric-generator","name":"Radioisotope thermoelectric generator","steps":["claim:binding-drives-decay","claim:decay-produces-alpha","claim:alpha-drives-heating","claim:heating-produces-gradient","claim:seebeck-drives","claim:seebeck-produces-carriers","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:radioisotope-thermoelectric-generator"],"evidence":["source:prelas-2014","source:rowe-2006"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","environment":["state-solid","radioisotope-required"],"summary":"Decay heat across thermoelectric couples; powers deep-space probes.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:spin-seebeck-thermopile","name":"Spin Seebeck thermopile","steps":["claim:sse-drives","claim:sse-produces-spin-current","claim:spin-current-drives-ishe","claim:ishe-produces","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:spin-seebeck-device"],"evidence":["source:uchida-2008","source:uchida-2010-insulator","source:bauer-2012"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K4","environment":["state-solid","temp-gradient-required"],"summary":"Heat drives magnons in YIG; the Pt strip converts the pumped spin current to a voltage.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:rectenna-microwave","name":"Microwave rectenna","steps":["claim:radiation-drives-antenna","claim:antenna-couples-rectification","claim:rectification-produces","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:rectenna"],"evidence":["source:brown-1984"],"status":"prototype","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K7","performance":{"notes":"No thermodynamic ceiling below unity applies to rectifying a coherent microwave beam (the Landsberg limit belongs to thermal radiation), so no bound is recorded. Do not compare a single element's RF-to-DC efficiency with a large array's capture-plus-rectification efficiency (over 82 % at Goldstone) or with end-to-end DC-to-DC beaming efficiency (54 % certified in March 1975).","measurements":[{"quantity":"rectenna element RF-to-DC conversion efficiency","value":"90.5 ± 0.5 %","value_numeric":0.905,"unit":"1","metric":"conversion-efficiency","basis":"DC power delivered to the load over microwave power input to a single rectenna element, at 8 W input, 2450 MHz","scope":"device","conditions":"the improved rectenna element of the NASA-Lewis receiving-terminal study (higher-impedance microwave circuit, higher DC load resistance, improved diodes); 79.5 ± 0.5 % at 50 mW and 45 % at 1 mW input","sources":["source:brown-1977-nasa-cr-135194"],"year":1977,"note":"the atlas had carried 0.906, the figure Brown's later reviews quote; the contractor report read in full gives 90.5 ± 0.5 % at the 8 W element level"}]},"environment":["medium-conductor"],"summary":"Brown's 1977 2.45 GHz rectenna element reached 90.5 ± 0.5 % RF-to-DC conversion at 8 W input; the Goldstone array converted over 82 % of the impinging microwave power at the rectenna boundary.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:hydrovoltaic-generator","name":"Hydrovoltaic generator","steps":["claim:humidity-drives-evaporation","claim:evaporation-produces-capillary","claim:capillary-drives-hydrovoltaic","claim:hydrovoltaic-produces-ions","claim:ionic-current-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:hydrovoltaic-generator"],"evidence":["source:xue-2017-hydrovoltaic"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K4","environment":["env-aqueous","humidity-required"],"summary":"Evaporation pulls water through a carbon film and streams ions with it.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:droplet-electricity-generator","name":"Droplet-based electricity generator","steps":["claim:gravity-drives-droplet","claim:droplet-produces-charge","claim:surface-charge-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:droplet-electricity-generator"],"evidence":["source:xu-2020-droplet"],"status":"demonstrated","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K4","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"peak output power density (instantaneous)","value":"50.1 W/m²","value_numeric":50.1,"unit":"W/m²","metric":"power-density","basis":"instantaneous peak output power per unit device area at the optimal load; a per-impact peak, not a time-averaged density","normalization":{"kind":"area","basis":"active-device-area"},"scope":"device","conditions":"PTFE film on an ITO substrate with an aluminium electrode; impinging water droplets bridge the components into a closed loop; load resistance 332.0 kΩ (in a sweep from 1 kΩ to 100 MΩ the output current fell from 250.0 µA to 2.0 µA)","sources":["source:xu-2020-droplet"],"year":2020}]},"environment":["state-liquid"],"summary":"A falling droplet bridges a charged PTFE surface to an electrode and discharges it through the load.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:fuel-cell","name":"Hydrogen fuel cell","steps":["claim:fuel-cell-drives","claim:fuel-cell-produces-ions","claim:ionic-current-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:fuel-cell"],"evidence":["source:grove-1839","source:bard-faulkner-2001"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","environment":["medium-membrane"],"summary":"Hydrogen is oxidised at the anode, oxygen reduced at the cathode; electrons go round the load.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:galvanic-battery","name":"Galvanic battery discharge","steps":["claim:galvanic-drives","claim:galvanic-produces-ions","claim:ionic-current-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:galvanic-cell"],"evidence":["source:bard-faulkner-2001"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","environment":["env-aqueous"],"summary":"Stored reaction free energy delivered as current.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:mhd-generator","name":"Combustion MHD generator","steps":["claim:combustion-drives","claim:combustion-produces-hot-gas","claim:hot-gas-drives-gas-dynamic-expansion","claim:gas-dynamic-expansion-produces-flow","claim:flow-drives-mhd","claim:mhd-produces","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:mhd-generator"],"evidence":["source:rosa-1961-mhd","source:smith-1979-nasa-tm-79135"],"status":"prototype","regime_provides":["thermodynamic:expansion-pressure-drop"],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[{"token":"thermodynamic:expansion-pressure-drop","kind":"implementation-process","component":"combustor / nozzle / generator inlet","explanation":"the pressurised seeded combustion products expand through the nozzle to the generator inlet; Smith 1979 reports the nozzle designed for Mach 2 and Mach 2 flow entering the MHD duct","evidence":["source:smith-1979-nasa-tm-79135"]}],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K7","environment":["state-plasma","temp-high","field-magnetic-required"],"summary":"Seeded combustion products expand through the combustor's nozzle into a directed supersonic stream that crosses a magnet; electrodes collect the transverse current. NASA Lewis ran cesium-seeded H₂–O₂ combustion products at Mach 2 into a diverging duct of 42 electrodes in a 5 T cryomagnet — the nozzle, not a separate input, makes the flow.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:amtec","name":"AMTEC cell","steps":["claim:amtec-drives","claim:amtec-produces-ions","claim:ionic-current-converts-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:amtec-cell"],"evidence":["source:cole-1983-amtec"],"status":"prototype","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K6","environment":["temp-high","state-liquid"],"summary":"Sodium ions cross a solid electrolyte; electrons take the external circuit.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:nuclear-steam-plant","name":"Nuclear fission steam plant","steps":["claim:binding-drives-fission","claim:fission-produces-gradient","claim:expansion-drives","claim:expansion-produces-motion","claim:motion-drives-generator","claim:generator-produces-carriers","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:nuclear-reactor-plant"],"evidence":["source:bejan-2016","source:nrc-pressurized-water-reactors","source:nrc-boiling-water-reactors"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","environment":["temp-high"],"summary":"Fission heat establishes a thermal disequilibrium that a steam Rankine cycle converts to shaft work and electricity. The generic pathway abstracts the whole heat-engine cycle; whether the reactor coolant boils in the vessel (a BWR) or a steam generator makes the secondary steam (a PWR) is a topology the system layer will carry, never this linear route.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 38 (re-spelled on the second reader's finding; the NRC's BWR and PWR descriptions read; no feed-pump auxiliary until the named implementation is source-reviewed)"}},{"id":"pathway:photosynthesis","name":"Photosynthesis","steps":["claim:photosynthesis-drives","claim:photosynthesis-produces-carbon","claim:reduced-carbon-converts-fuel"],"demonstrated_with":[],"evidence":["source:blankenship-2011"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","environment":["env-aqueous","illumination-required"],"summary":"Light-driven charge separation stores solar energy in sugars; the basis of every fossil fuel.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:magnetocaloric-refrigeration","name":"Magnetocaloric refrigeration","steps":["claim:magnetocaloric-drives","claim:magnetocaloric-converts-cooling"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:magnetocaloric-refrigerator"],"evidence":["source:pecharsky-gschneidner-1997"],"status":"prototype","regime_provides":["field:magnetic-field-cycling"],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K7","performance":{"notes":"COP comparable to vapour-compression in prototypes; not a power path — magnetic work in, cooling out","measurements":[]},"environment":["state-solid","field-magnetic-required"],"summary":"A regenerator of Gd cycled through a permanent-magnet field pumps heat.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:peltier-cooler","name":"Peltier cooler","steps":["claim:peltier-drives","claim:peltier-converts-cooling"],"demonstrated_with":[],"evidence":["source:ioffe-1957","source:goldsmid-2016"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":[],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","performance":{"notes":"COP ≈ 0.5–1 for small ΔT; electrical work in, cooling out","measurements":[]},"environment":["state-solid"],"summary":"Current through a thermoelectric junction pumps heat from the cold side.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null}},{"id":"pathway:boiling-water-reactor-direct-steam-plant","name":"Boiling-water reactor direct-steam plant","steps":["claim:binding-drives-fission","claim:fission-produces-hot-gas","claim:hot-gas-drives-expansion","claim:expansion-produces-motion","claim:motion-drives-generator","claim:generator-produces-carriers","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:boiling-water-reactor-plant"],"evidence":["source:nrc-boiling-water-reactors"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":["thermodynamic:expansion-pressure-drop"],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[{"kind":"external-input","energy_form":"electrical","purpose":"condensate / feedwater pumping and cycle-pressure restoration","establishes":["thermodynamic:expansion-pressure-drop"],"conditions":["turbine exhaust is condensed and pumped back to the reactor vessel; reactor-vessel steam is delivered to a lower-pressure turbine / condenser side","the NRC's generic description: the resulting water is pumped out of the condenser with a series of pumps, reheated, and pumped back to the reactor vessel; the core is cooled by water circulated using electrically powered pumps"],"evidence":["source:nrc-boiling-water-reactors"],"note":"spelled as an external electrical input, not recirculating work, because the generic description does not say whether a given unit's main feedwater pumps are turbine-driven or motor-driven — a named plant would settle it (the second reader's finding 7)"}],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","environment":["temp-high"],"summary":"The reactor coolant itself boils in the vessel and its steam drives the main turbine-generator — the direct-cycle topology, distinct from the generic nuclear steam plant (fission establishes a temperature gradient a heat-engine cycle converts) and from the pressurised-water reactor, whose steam generator belongs to the system layer.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 38 (the second reader's finding 2: the BWR recorded on the direct-steam route p-dc7d860e03; the NRC description read in full)"}},{"id":"pathway:pwr-primary-heat-delivery","name":"PWR primary heat delivery","steps":["claim:binding-drives-fission","claim:fission-produces-gradient","claim:temperature-drives-advective-heat-transport","claim:advective-heat-transport-produces-heat-flow","claim:heat-flow-converts-useful-heat"],"demonstrated_with":["transducer:nuclear-reactor-plant"],"evidence":["source:nrc-pressurized-water-reactors"],"status":"commercial","regime_provides":["flow:bulk-fluid-motion"],"regime_model_provides":[],"auxiliary_requirements":[{"kind":"external-input","energy_form":"electrical","purpose":"reactor coolant pumps","establishes":["flow:bulk-fluid-motion"],"conditions":["electrically powered reactor coolant pumps circulate the pressurised primary water through the core and the steam generator; the loop's heat transport is forced, not buoyant"],"evidence":["source:nrc-pressurized-water-reactors"],"note":null}],"regime_establishments":[],"bounds":[],"knowledge_level":"K8","environment":["temp-high","state-liquid"],"summary":"Fission heats pressurised primary water that reactor coolant pumps circulate to the steam generator, where its heat is delivered across the tube walls to the secondary circuit — thermal energy delivered at a useful temperature, consumed inside the PWR system rather than exported.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 40 (the second reader's spelling with advective transport, not conduction; the NRC's PWR description read in full)"}}],"searches":[{"id":"search:2026-09-20-d-01-c-23","target":{"kind":"cell","row":"disequilibrium:temperature-gradient","col":"coupling:electrokinetic"},"protocol_version":"cell-search-v1","started_at":"2026-09-20T16:00:00+10:00","completed_at":"2026-09-20T16:30:00+10:00","objective":"direct-relation","composition_terms":[],"inclusion_criteria":["a temperature difference or gradient is an imposed causal driver","an electrokinetic-family electrical or ionic response is measured","a physical experiment or operating device","the result is not powered primarily by another imposed disequilibrium"],"exclusion_criteria":["theory or analytical model only","numerical or molecular-dynamics simulation only","temperature only modifies a pressure- or electric-field-driven experiment","thermo-osmotic flow without an electrokinetic electrical output","review, proposal or device concept without experimental measurement"],"runs":[{"id":"run:web-01","engine":"manual","query_form":"driver-family","query":"(\"temperature gradient\" OR \"temperature difference\" OR \"thermal gradient\" OR \"waste heat\") AND (electrokinetic OR \"streaming potential\" OR hydrovoltaic)","executed_at":"2026-09-20T16:05:00+10:00","engine_version":null,"index_snapshot":null,"result_count_reported":null,"records_retrieved":6,"records_screened":6,"records_read":6},{"id":"run:s2-01","engine":"semantic-scholar","query_form":"demonstration-precision","query":"DOI:10.1039/D0NA00429D (abstract and open-access status retrieved to confirm the experimental method)","executed_at":"2026-09-20T16:20:00+10:00","request_url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/graph/v1/paper/DOI:10.1039/D0NA00429D?fields=title,abstract,openAccessPdf,externalIds","engine_version":null,"index_snapshot":null,"result_count_reported":1,"records_retrieved":1,"records_screened":1,"records_read":1}],"screening":{"records_retrieved":7,"unique_records":6,"title_abstract_screened":6,"full_text_read":2},"hits":[{"title":"pH-regulated thermo-driven nanofluidics for nanoconfined mass transport and energy conversion","year":2020,"doi":"10.1039/D0NA00429D","url":"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9419229/","external_ids":{"openalex":"W3042301273","pmc":"PMC9419229","pubmed":"36132795"},"found_by":["run:web-01","run:s2-01"],"access":"full-text","decision":"route-only","reason":"A physical experiment: an ion-track-etched polyimide membrane between hot and cold electrolyte reservoirs gave a steady streaming current rising linearly with ΔT to 14 nA at 47.5 °C. But the authors analyse it from the aspect of thermo-osmosis — ΔT drives thermo-osmotic liquid motion, the double layer makes that motion ion-selective, the moving counter-charge is the current, and its direction reverses with surface charge (pH). The temperature gradient reaches the family through a separately resolvable thermo-osmotic step, so this demonstrates the composition, not a direct Temperature gradient → Electrokinetic relation."},{"title":"Flow and streaming potential of an electrolyte in a channel with an axial temperature gradient","year":2017,"doi":"10.1017/jfm.2016.844","found_by":["run:web-01"],"access":"abstract","decision":"theory-only","reason":"Analytical non-isothermal streaming-potential treatment (Dietzel and Hardt); no physical demonstration."},{"title":"Electrohydrodynamics within the electrical double layer in the presence of finite temperature gradients","year":2013,"doi":"10.1103/PhysRevE.88.053020","found_by":["run:web-01"],"access":"abstract","decision":"theory-only","reason":"Model study in which a temperature gradient modifies a streaming-potential system; no experiment is reported."},{"title":"Non-isothermal flow of an electrolyte in a charged nanochannel","year":2020,"doi":"10.1088/1361-6528/ab8fe4","found_by":["run:web-01"],"access":"abstract","decision":"simulation-only","reason":"Molecular-dynamics simulation, not an experimental demonstration."},{"title":"Thermo-Osmotic Flow in Thin Films","year":2016,"doi":"10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.188303","found_by":["run:web-01"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"An experiment in which a temperature gradient drives fluid flow, but no electrokinetic electrical output is measured; it supports the thermo-osmotic family, not this cell."}],"result":"inconclusive","completeness":"partial","reviewed_by":"Ava Kim (loop-3 passes 12–13; hits proposed by the ChatGPT review, each DOI resolved and the Zhao paper's method and mechanism read by the lane)","reviewed_on":"2026-09-20","limitations":["Only one manual web run and one Semantic Scholar lookup were made; a protocol-complete negative would require OpenAlex, Semantic Scholar and Google Scholar with all query forms and a citation chase.","The one physical experiment found demonstrates a composition through thermo-osmosis; no direct-relation experiment was found, but the protocol was not completed, so no negative is claimed."],"conclusion":"No direct temperature-gradient → electrokinetic demonstration was found in this partial review. The one physical experiment (Zhao et al. 2020) demonstrates the composition thermo-osmosis → streaming potential and is now recorded as claim:thermo-osmosis-couples-streaming; the cell keeps its composed-bridge status.","source_run_ids":[],"follow_up":{"canonical_claim_review":"completed","candidate_source_ids":["source:zhao-2020-thermo-nanofluidics"]},"reviewed":true},{"id":"search:2026-09-20-d-04-c-01-partial","target":{"kind":"cell","row":"disequilibrium:salinity-gradient","col":"coupling:thermoelectric"},"protocol_version":"cell-search-v1","started_at":"2026-09-20T16:40:00+10:00","completed_at":"2026-09-20T17:05:00+10:00","objective":"direct-relation","composition_terms":[],"inclusion_criteria":["the salinity or concentration difference is the imposed causal energy source","a Seebeck, Peltier or Thomson-family response in a solid conductor is measured","a physical experiment or operating device","no separately resolvable thermal, electrochemical, osmotic or ionic-thermoelectric conversion supplies the thermoelectric driver"],"exclusion_criteria":["a thermoelectric generator driven by a temperature difference in a salinity-gradient solar pond","RED, PRO, CapMix or other osmotic or electrochemical conversion","an ionic or nanofluidic analogue of Seebeck or Peltier rather than the solid-state thermoelectric family","theory or simulation only"],"runs":[{"id":"run:oa-bundle","engine":"openalex","query_form":"driver-family","query":"(\"salinity gradient\" OR \"salinity difference\" OR \"blue energy\" OR \"river–sea mixing\" OR \"osmotic power\") AND (thermoelectric OR seebeck OR thermocouple OR thermopile)","executed_at":"2026-09-20T16:45:00+10:00","request_url":"frozen bundle search:2026-09-20-d-04-c-01 in data/generated/search-runs.json (8 queries: family, six per-phenomenon, precision)","engine_version":null,"index_snapshot":null,"sort":"relevance_score:desc","result_count_reported":51,"records_retrieved":51,"records_screened":12,"records_read":0},{"id":"run:web-family","engine":"manual","query_form":"driver-family","query":"(\"salinity gradient\" OR \"salinity difference\" OR \"blue energy\" OR \"river-sea mixing\" OR \"osmotic power\" OR \"salinity-gradient power\") AND (thermoelectric OR Seebeck OR thermocouple OR thermopile)","executed_at":"2026-09-20T16:50:00+10:00","result_count_reported":null,"records_retrieved":8,"records_screened":8,"records_read":8},{"id":"run:web-phenomena","engine":"manual","query_form":"driver-phenomenon","query":"(\"salinity gradient\" OR \"salinity difference\" OR \"blue energy\" OR \"river-sea mixing\" OR \"osmotic power\" OR \"salinity-gradient power\") AND (\"Seebeck effect\" OR \"thermoelectric effect\" OR \"thermo-EMF\" OR \"Peltier effect\" OR \"Thomson effect\")","executed_at":"2026-09-20T16:55:00+10:00","result_count_reported":null,"records_retrieved":8,"records_screened":8,"records_read":8},{"id":"run:web-precision","engine":"manual","query_form":"demonstration-precision","query":"(\"salinity gradient\" OR \"salinity difference\" OR \"blue energy\" OR \"river-sea mixing\" OR \"osmotic power\" OR \"salinity-gradient power\") AND (thermoelectric OR Seebeck OR thermocouple OR thermopile OR \"Seebeck effect\" OR \"thermoelectric effect\" OR \"thermo-EMF\" OR \"Peltier effect\" OR \"Thomson effect\") AND (experiment OR experimental OR measured OR device OR prototype)","executed_at":"2026-09-20T17:00:00+10:00","result_count_reported":null,"records_retrieved":8,"records_screened":8,"records_read":8}],"screening":{"records_retrieved":75,"unique_records":55,"title_abstract_screened":20,"full_text_read":0},"hits":[{"title":"Electric power generation from solar pond using combined thermosyphon and thermoelectric modules","year":2011,"doi":"10.1016/j.solener.2010.11.012","found_by":["run:oa-bundle","run:web-family"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-driver","reason":"The Seebeck modules are driven by the pond's 40–60 °C temperature difference; the salinity gradient suppresses convection and stores solar heat."},{"title":"Small Scale Power Generation using Low Grade Heat from Solar Pond","year":2012,"doi":"10.1016/j.proeng.2012.10.111","found_by":["run:web-family"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-driver","reason":"Same architecture, an experimentally tested TEG on pond heat; the driver is the temperature difference."},{"title":"Power generation enhancement in a salinity-gradient solar pond power plant using thermoelectric generator","year":2017,"doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2017.01.031","found_by":["run:oa-bundle","run:web-family"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-driver","reason":"A modelled plant in which the TEG extracts the pond's thermal energy, not the mixing free energy."},{"title":"Peltier cooling for thermal management in nanofluidic devices","year":2024,"doi":"10.1016/j.device.2023.100188","found_by":["run:web-phenomena"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"An ionic Peltier analogue in electrolyte nanopores under externally driven ion transport, not the solid-state thermoelectric family."},{"title":"Gate-Tunable Ionothermoelectric Cooling in a Solid-State Nanopore","year":2025,"doi":"10.1021/acsnano.5c13339","found_by":["run:web-phenomena"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"Salinity changes ionic permselectivity; the measured cooling is an ionic analogue of Peltier under ion transport."},{"title":"Salinity gradient power: influences of temperature and nanopore size","year":2016,"doi":"10.1039/C5NR07563G","found_by":["run:web-phenomena"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"Theoretical nanofluidic reverse electrodialysis in which temperature modifies RED performance."},{"title":"Salinity Gradients for Sustainable Energy: Primer, Progress, and Prospects","year":2016,"doi":"10.1021/acs.est.6b03448","found_by":["run:web-family"],"access":"abstract","decision":"review-only","reason":"Reviews PRO, RED and CapMix as the salinity-gradient mechanisms; no solid-state thermoelectric demonstration."},{"title":"Harvesting Blue Energy Based on Salinity and Temperature Gradient: Challenges, Solutions, and Opportunities","year":2023,"doi":"10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00168","found_by":["run:web-family"],"access":"abstract","decision":"review-only","reason":"Treats salinity-gradient and temperature-gradient conversion as distinct or hybrid mechanisms; no direct demonstration."}],"result":"inconclusive","completeness":"partial","reviewed_by":"Ava Kim (loop-3 pass 13; hits proposed by the ChatGPT web review, each DOI resolved against Crossref by the lane; OpenAlex bundle frozen but only its twelve most-cited works screened)","reviewed_on":"2026-09-20","limitations":["Semantic Scholar and Google Scholar were not run; OpenAlex was run as a frozen bundle but only its twelve most-cited works were screened.","No full texts were read for this negative review.","Citation chasing was targeted (the two major salinity-gradient reviews), not exhaustive."],"conclusion":"No direct salinity-gradient-driven solid-state Seebeck, Peltier or Thomson demonstration was found. The nearest hits are temperature-driven TEGs on salinity-gradient solar ponds, osmotic or electrochemical converters, and ionic thermoelectric analogues. 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Recorded as the route's proposed pathway."},{"title":"Electro-Marangoni Effect in Thin Liquid Films","year":2011,"doi":"10.1021/la1044656","found_by":["search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/oa-mp12"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"Film drainage (not a temperature gradient) drives the liquid outflow that generates a streaming potential; the Marangoni effect is the reverse surface flow the potential produces. The chain runs drainage → streaming potential → electro-Marangoni, the opposite order to the route (abstract)."},{"title":"Thermocapillary convection during hydrogen evolution at microelectrodes","year":2019,"doi":"10.1016/j.electacta.2018.11.187","found_by":["search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/oa-dm1"],"access":"abstract","decision":"constituent-only","reason":"Ohmic heating at a Pt microelectrode sets up a temperature gradient whose thermocapillary stress drives electrolyte flow at hydrogen bubbles; velocity and temperature fields are measured (PTV, luminescence lifetime imaging). Temperature gradient → Marangoni flow is demonstrated; no streaming potential or current is measured (abstract)."},{"title":"Particle migration in suspensions by thermocapillary or electrophoretic motion","year":1990,"doi":"10.1017/s0022112090001884","found_by":["search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/oa-dm1"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"Two mathematically analogous problems (thermocapillary bubble migration; electrophoresis of colloids) treated in parallel; thermocapillary flow does not generate the electrokinetic response (abstract)."},{"title":"Heat transfer enhancement driven by thermo-electro-hydrodynamics (TEHD): Influence of the Marangoni effect","year":2026,"doi":"10.1016/j.elstat.2026.104289","found_by":["search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/oa-dm1-newest"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"Title: an applied electric field drives the flow (electrohydrodynamics) with the Marangoni effect as a modifier; the electrical side is the driver, not an output. Not read beyond the title."},{"title":"Gradient architecture solar evaporator for efficient hypersaline wastewater treatment and freshwater-salt-electricity Trigeneration","year":2025,"doi":"10.1016/j.cej.2025.172116","found_by":["search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/gs-wc","search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/gs-mp12","search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/gs-dp"],"access":"abstract","decision":"driver-only-modifies","reason":"Thermal Marangoni/thermocapillary circulation manages salt transport in a solar evaporator, while the reported electrical potential (0.3 V open-circuit over 10 h) is attributed to the engineered salt/ionic gradient; no Marangoni-attributable streaming output is isolated (abstract read on the publisher's page)."},{"title":"A 3D fabric evaporator with yarn arrays enables sustainable salt-resistant desalination and electricity generation","year":2025,"doi":"10.1016/j.compositesb.2025.113111","found_by":["search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/gs-wc","search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/gs-dp"],"access":"abstract","decision":"driver-only-modifies","reason":"Thermocapillary force is an auxiliary transport mechanism inside an evaporation-driven hydrovoltaic device (0.503 V); no control resolves its contribution to the output (abstract read; the Marangoni discussion is in the text)."},{"title":"Layered 3D aerogel evaporator with bioinspired architecture for high-performance solar desalination","year":2026,"doi":"10.1016/j.jece.2026.123594","found_by":["search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/gs-wc","search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/gs-dp"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"driver-only-modifies","reason":"The paper's own wording — a thermal Marangoni flow 'amplifies the resulting streaming potential' — makes it an enhancer/co-driver of an evaporation-driven output, not an isolated D → M1 → M2 demonstration (Scholar snippet; journal version J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2026, not read)."},{"title":"Achieving Ultrahigh Voltage Over 100 V and Remarkable Freshwater Harvesting Based on Thermodiffusion Enhanced Hydrovoltaic Generator","year":2024,"doi":"10.1002/aenm.202400529","found_by":["search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/gs-wc","search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/gs-mp12","search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/gs-dp"],"access":"abstract","decision":"driver-only-modifies","reason":"Thermo-capillary convection occurs inside a thermodiffusion/evaporation hydrovoltaic system (45.6 μW cm⁻²; 105 V from 192 units), but the electrical output is not experimentally decomposed into a Marangoni-driven component (abstract read on OpenAlex)."},{"title":"Synergistic interfacial evaporation and electricity generation enabled by Fe–Co PBA derived natural sponges","year":2026,"doi":"10.1039/d6ta01227b","found_by":["search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/gs-wc","search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/gs-dp"],"access":"abstract","decision":"driver-only-modifies","reason":"Marangoni transport is invoked within coupled interfacial-evaporation and moisture electricity generation without isolation of the Marangoni → streaming contribution (one-sentence publisher abstract and Scholar snippet)."},{"title":"Chemical-Gradient-Induced Marangoni Flows Boost Solar-Brine Desalination and Enable Concurrent Power Generation","year":2026,"doi":"10.1002/adfm.78354","found_by":["search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/gs-wc","search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/gs-mp12","search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/gs-dp"],"access":"abstract","decision":"driver-only-modifies","reason":"A solutocapillary co-driver, relevant to the sibling route p-41cb505083 (surface energy difference → Marangoni → streaming), where it is recorded: a programmed surface-tension gradient sustains Marangoni microcirculation alongside capillary flow in a hydrovoltaic evaporator (25 μA, 0.7 V, an LED lit) without isolating the Marangoni branch. For this thermal route it is the wrong driver (abstract read on OpenAlex)."},{"title":"Recent advances in nano-electromechanical and microfluidic power generation","year":2006,"doi":"10.1002/er.1282","found_by":["search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/gs-wc","search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/gs-mp12","search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/gs-dp"],"access":"abstract","decision":"constituent-only","reason":"Thermocapillary droplet pumping supplies mechanical pressure/deformation to a piezoelectric converter rather than a streaming-potential stage; evidence for the target M1 with a different downstream conversion. The primary experimental paper is Odukoya & Naterer 2013 (IJHMT 58:202, read in full): the micro heat engine was fabricated on PZT with Ti-W microheaters, the droplet pumping was measured, and the 1.2–1.3 mV and ≈ 1.6 % are simulation results — a search/pathway target for Temperature gradient → thermocapillary pumping → mechanical stress → piezoelectric effect → electricity, not for this route (abstract read)."},{"title":"Field-enhanced electrokinetic charge separation induced by thermocapillarity-driven flow in a liquid film","year":2011,"found_by":["search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/gs-wc","search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/gs-mp12"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"theory-only","reason":"APS DFD 2011 abstract: thermocapillary stresses in a thin liquid film in a lateral thermal gradient induce a streaming potential through the electrokinetic effect, with the upper limit of the streaming potential derived — the theoretical precursor of Pini 2015; no experiment (title and meeting abstract only)."},{"title":"Hydroelectric power plant on a paper strip","year":2018,"doi":"10.1039/c7lc01350g","found_by":["search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/gs-mp12"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"wrong-driver","reason":"Capillary wicking through paper drives the flow whose streaming potential is harvested; a surface-tension-driven imbibition with no surface-tension gradient, so not the Marangoni effect. Caught by the alias 'surface-tension-driven flow', which pass 22 removed from the phenomenon (Scholar snippet; not read)."}],"result":"inconclusive","completeness":"partial","reviewed_by":"Ava Kim's loop-3 lane (Claude Opus 5), with ChatGPT (GPT-5 Thinking) as second reader of the title lists; abstracts, Pini 2015's full text and the citation-chase titles read by the lane; Google Scholar runs by hand and their screening on 21/09 with ChatGPT as second reader (pass 22)","reviewed_on":"2026-09-21","limitations":["Semantic Scholar runs not made (anonymous API pool answered HTTP 429 throughout; key requested from the owner, exception e953), mandatory for a negative; Google Scholar's four forms were run by hand on 21/09 as compact strings (Scholar's ~32-word limit) — see the run notes","OpenAlex driver-mechanism query: 1,393 works reported, the first 100 by relevance and the first 50 newest screened at title level (protocol depth), the rest unscreened","citation chase done on OpenAlex's reference lists and citing works only (Pini 2015: 40 references, 3 citers; Massing 2019: 54 references, 101 of 103 citers), screened at title level with an electrokinetic/electrical vocabulary filter; no full-text chase","the mechanism-pair, whole-chain and demonstration-precision queries returned 2, 0 and 0 works","Google Scholar: the driver-mechanism form reports about 19,200 works, of which the first 100 by relevance were screened at title level (protocol depth); the mechanism-pair form 282, the first 100 screened; Scholar's full-text index surfaces papers that only mention the mechanisms in passing, so its lists are noisier than OpenAlex's","the two Elsevier chase hits (Ruckenstein 1981; Pal et al. 2011) remain unread","pass 49 (21/09 ~11:29 pm Sydney): every planned Semantic Scholar query was attempted once through the anonymous pool — 4 of 4 answered HTTP 429 at the first request (the runs above, each with its literal query, key and time); Google Scholar served its bot check at the first load of the driver-mechanism form (recorded as an attempt with nothing screened). Both engines are mandatory for a negative under route-search-v1, so the record stays partial and inconclusive: the outstanding obligations are the Semantic Scholar runs for every mandatory key and the Google Scholar runs to the protocol depth; OpenAlex's forms are complete. A blocked request is evidence that an engine was attempted, never that its query returned nothing."],"conclusion":"No physical demonstration of temperature gradient → Marangoni flow → streaming potential → electrical output was found in the OpenAlex protocol runs, the two citation chases or the four Google Scholar forms run by hand on 21/09/2026 (Scholar's full-text index screened at the protocol depth). The route's only literature is the Pini 2015 theoretical proposal and its 2011 precursor; the solar-evaporator hydrovoltaic papers that invoke a thermal Marangoni flow use it as a co-driver or enhancer of an evaporation-driven streaming output and never isolate its contribution (parallel-driver rule: driver-only-modifies); the thermocapillary micro heat engine converts the droplet motion through a piezoelectric membrane, a different second mechanism. Inconclusive until the Semantic Scholar runs exist and the two unread chase hits are read.","source_run_ids":["search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd"],"reviewed":true},{"id":"search:2026-09-20-p-41cb505083-partial","target":{"kind":"path","path":"p-41cb505083","claims":["claim:surface-drives-marangoni","claim:marangoni-produces-flow","claim:fluid-flow-carrier-drives-streaming","claim:streaming-produces-ions","claim:ionic-current-converts-electricity"]},"protocol_version":"route-search-v1","started_at":"2026-09-20T21:05:00+10:00","completed_at":"2026-09-21T00:30:00+10:00","objective":"exact-composition","composition_terms":[],"inclusion_criteria":["a physical experiment or device in which the route's driver is imposed or naturally present, every conversion phenomenon occurs in the recorded order, the carrier crosses every handoff, and an electrical response (streaming voltage, current or power) is measured (route-search-v1 §3)"],"exclusion_criteria":["theory, simulation or proposals (recorded as such, never as demonstrations)","one mechanism or one adjacent pair demonstrated alone (constituent-only)","the same mechanisms from a different driver or to a different output (source-variant / sink-variant), or with an extra conversion phenomenon between recorded steps (longer-chain)"],"runs":[{"id":"search:2026-09-20-p-41cb505083/oa-dm1","engine":"openalex","query_form":"route-driver-mechanism","query_key":"driver-mechanism:1","query":"(\"Surface energy difference\" OR \"surface-tension gradient\" OR \"interfacial tension gradient\" OR \"Marangoni stress\") AND (\"Marangoni effect\" OR \"surface-tension-driven flow\" OR \"thermocapillary flow\" OR \"solutocapillary flow\" OR thermocapillary OR solutocapillary OR 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separation","year":2015,"doi":"10.1007/s10404-015-1597-x","found_by":["search:2026-09-20-p-41cb505083/oa-mp12","search:2026-09-20-p-41cb505083/oa-dm1-newest"],"access":"full-text","decision":"theory-only","reason":"The same analysis covers destillocapillary (surfactant-concentration-driven) streaming and finds it more promising than thermocapillary drive; theory and numerics only (arXiv 1609.09404 read in full). Recorded as the route's proposed pathway."},{"title":"Electro-Marangoni Effect in Thin Liquid Films","year":2011,"doi":"10.1021/la1044656","found_by":["search:2026-09-20-p-41cb505083/oa-mp12"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"Drainage → streaming potential → electro-Marangoni surface flow: the streaming potential is upstream of the Marangoni effect, the reverse of the route (abstract)."},{"title":"Can phoretic motions be treated as interfacial tension gradient driven phenomena?","year":1981,"doi":"10.1016/0021-9797(81)90011-4","found_by":["search:2026-09-20-p-41cb505083/oa-dm1"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"Title: phoretic particle motions (diffusio-/thermophoresis) treated as interfacial-tension-gradient phenomena; particle motion, not a streaming electrical output. Abstract not accessible (Elsevier 1981); not read beyond the title."},{"title":"Sustained interfacial powering through self-generated mantle and siphon of a gelling droplet","year":2026,"doi":"10.1038/s41467-026-69481-2","found_by":["search:2026-09-20-p-41cb505083/cc-kim"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"A long-lived solutal Marangoni motor (self-propelled gelling droplet): the output is mechanical self-propulsion, no electrical response (abstract)."},{"title":"Sedimentation potential in a dilute suspension of ion-adsorbed liquid drops under gravity: Marangoni effects and interfacial charge","year":2025,"doi":"10.1007/s00396-025-05494-5","found_by":["search:2026-09-20-p-41cb505083/oa-dm1-newest"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"wrong-driver","reason":"Title: the electrokinetic (sedimentation) potential arises from gravity-driven drop motion, with Marangoni effects as a modifier of drop mobility; the driver is gravity, not a surface-energy difference. Not read beyond the title."},{"title":"Chemical-Gradient-Induced Marangoni Flows Boost Solar-Brine Desalination and Enable Concurrent Power Generation","year":2026,"doi":"10.1002/adfm.78354","found_by":["search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/gs-wc","search:2026-09-20-p-423a19acdd/gs-mp12"],"access":"abstract","decision":"driver-only-modifies","reason":"Surfaced by the sibling thermal route's Google Scholar runs (21/09/2026). A graphene-oxide evaporator with a programmed longitudinal gradient of oxygen-containing groups: the persistent surface-tension disparity sustains Marangoni microcirculation that co-drives water transport with capillary flow ('a dual-driving transport regime'), while the device delivers 25 μA short-circuit current and 0.7 V open-circuit voltage and series units power an LED. D → M1 is physical, but capillary transport is a simultaneous independent driver and the electrical output is not decomposed into capillary-driven and Marangoni-driven parts (parallel-driver rule). The nearest physical device to this route; recorded as a note on the proposed pathway, its figures kept off the pathway's measurements."},{"title":"Circadian humidity fluctuation induced capillary flow for sustainable mobile energy","year":2022,"doi":"10.1038/s41467-022-28998-y","found_by":["search:2026-09-20-p-41cb505083/gs-wc","search:2026-09-20-p-41cb505083/gs-dp"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-driver","reason":"Ionic-liquid drops on a nanowire array swell and shrink with the daily humidity, and the surface-tension-regulated cap profile drives an inward/outward capillary flow whose streaming potential is harvested (an LED and an LCD lit). The driver is the humidity fluctuation and the flow is capillary, not a surface-tension gradient; the Gibbs–Marangoni effect is invoked for a detail of the flow (abstract read on OpenAlex)."},{"title":"Polypyrrole@TiO2 Composite Nanotube System with Enhanced Capillary Fluid and Charge Transfer for High-Current Hydrovoltaic Energy Generation and Seawater Desalination","year":2024,"found_by":["search:2026-09-20-p-41cb505083/gs-wc","search:2026-09-20-p-41cb505083/gs-dp"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"driver-only-modifies","reason":"An evaporation-driven hydrovoltaic generator; the Marangoni effect is invoked for salt-film behaviour in the text (Scholar snippet), not as the driver of the streaming output. Not read beyond the snippet."},{"title":"Thin liquid film drainage: Ionic vs. non-ionic surfactants","year":2010,"doi":"10.1016/j.jcis.2009.11.065","found_by":["search:2026-09-20-p-41cb505083/gs-wc","search:2026-09-20-p-41cb505083/gs-dp"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"Film drainage generates the streaming potential; the surface-tension gradient (Marangoni effect) is a stabilising surface stress in the drainage model, not the driver of the flow — the same physics as the electro-Marangoni papers already recorded (Scholar snippet)."},{"title":"Onsager relation for electrokinetics at surfactant-covered bubble film","year":2025,"doi":"10.1002/dro2.70007","found_by":["search:2026-09-20-p-41cb505083/gs-wc"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"theory-only","reason":"A theory of electrokinetics at a surfactant-covered bubble film under pressure-driven flow, in which the Marangoni stress from surfactant accumulation modifies the streaming current; the flow is pressure-driven (Scholar snippet; DOI resolved on OpenAlex)."},{"title":"In Situ Studies of the Effect of CO2 on the Initial NaCl-Induced Atmospheric Corrosion of Copper","year":2005,"found_by":["search:2026-09-20-p-41cb505083/gs-wc","search:2026-09-20-p-41cb505083/gs-dp"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"insufficient-information","reason":"A corrosion study whose text suggests that a surface-tension gradient in the electrolyte droplet induces Marangoni convection that could give rise to a streaming potential difference; no energy conversion is measured and the passage is known only from Scholar's snippet. Not read."}],"result":"inconclusive","completeness":"partial","reviewed_by":"Ava Kim's loop-3 lane (Claude Opus 5), with ChatGPT (GPT-5 Thinking) as second reader of the title lists; abstracts, Pini 2015's full text and the citation-chase titles read by the lane; Google Scholar runs by hand and their screening on 21/09 (pass 23)","reviewed_on":"2026-09-21","limitations":["Semantic Scholar and Google Scholar runs not made (see p-423a19acdd); both are mandatory for a negative","OpenAlex driver-mechanism query: 515 works reported, the first 100 by relevance and the first 50 newest screened at title level, the rest unscreened","citation chase on OpenAlex reference lists and citing works only (Pini 2015: 40 references, 3 citers; Kim et al. 2017: 26 of 28 references, 133 of 134 citers), title-level with a vocabulary filter","the mechanism-pair, whole-chain and demonstration-precision queries returned 2, 0 and 0 works","the Zhang 2026 co-driver device was first found by the thermal sibling's Scholar runs and appears in this route's own whole-chain and precision runs","Google Scholar: the driver-mechanism form reports about 11,800 works, the first 100 by relevance screened at title level (protocol depth); the mechanism-pair form 261, the first 100 screened","pass 49 (21/09 ~11:29 pm Sydney): every planned Semantic Scholar query was attempted once through the anonymous pool — 4 of 4 answered HTTP 429 at the first request (the runs above, each with its literal query, key and time); Google Scholar served its bot check at the first load of the driver-mechanism form (recorded as an attempt with nothing screened). Both engines are mandatory for a negative under route-search-v1, so the record stays partial and inconclusive: the outstanding obligations are the Semantic Scholar runs for every mandatory key and the Google Scholar runs to the protocol depth; OpenAlex's forms are complete. A blocked request is evidence that an engine was attempted, never that its query returned nothing."],"conclusion":"No physical demonstration of a surface-energy difference → Marangoni flow → streaming potential → electrical output was found in the OpenAlex protocol runs, the two citation chases or the four Google Scholar forms run by hand on 21/09/2026. The route's literature is the Pini 2015 theoretical proposal and one physical device in which a programmed surface-tension gradient sustains Marangoni microcirculation as a co-driver beside capillary flow in a hydrovoltaic evaporator (Zhang et al. 2026: driver-only-modifies under the parallel-driver rule, since the Marangoni branch's electrical contribution is not isolated). Inconclusive until the Semantic Scholar runs exist and the unread chase hits are read.","source_run_ids":["search:2026-09-20-p-41cb505083"],"reviewed":true},{"id":"search:2026-09-20-p-1043a15e01-partial","target":{"kind":"path","path":"p-1043a15e01","claims":["claim:temperature-drives-ferrofluid-convection","claim:ferrofluid-convection-produces-flow","claim:fluid-flow-carrier-drives-streaming","claim:streaming-produces-ions","claim:ionic-current-converts-electricity"]},"protocol_version":"route-search-v1","started_at":"2026-09-20T21:05:00+10:00","completed_at":"2026-09-21T00:30:00+10:00","objective":"exact-composition","composition_terms":[],"inclusion_criteria":["a physical experiment or device in which the route's driver is imposed or naturally present, every conversion phenomenon occurs in the recorded order, the carrier crosses every handoff, and an electrical response (streaming voltage, current or power) is measured (route-search-v1 §3)"],"exclusion_criteria":["theory, simulation 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whether anything ran is unverified."},{"title":"Open-cycle multi-megawatt MHD space nuclear power facility","year":2008,"doi":"10.1007/s10512-008-9082-1","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-ccef4f212b/oa-mp12"],"access":"abstract","decision":"proposal-only","reason":"Pavshuk & Panchenko 2008 (Atomic Energy): an open-cycle multi-megawatt nuclear-MHD space power facility whose 20 MW MHD-generator parameters are calculated and designed, not measured (the second reader read the abstract) — a design."},{"title":"Gas Core Reactor with Magnetohydrodynamic Power System and Cascading Power Cycle","year":2004,"doi":"10.13182/nt04-a3480","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-ccef4f212b/oa-cn"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"proposal-only","reason":"Nuclear Technology 2004 (with the 2002 conference version): a gas-core reactor coupled to an MHD power system with a cascading cycle, by title — the Florida gas-core programme's design work."},{"title":"Potential of Nuclear MHD Electric Power Systems","year":1972,"doi":"10.2514/3.61680","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-ccef4f212b/oa-cn"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"review-only","reason":"Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets 1972: the potential of nuclear-MHD electric power systems, by title — an assessment."},{"title":"A Review of Basic Studies on MHD Power Generation for Nuclear Applications","year":1968,"doi":"10.3327/jaesj.10.390","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-ccef4f212b/oa-cn"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"review-only","reason":"Journal of the Atomic Energy Society of Japan 1968: a review of the basic studies (nonequilibrium ionization, inert-gas generators) for nuclear applications, by title — to be read for any reactor-heated test it may report."},{"title":"Closed-cycle MHD meeting (Report on the international closed-cycle MHD specialists meeting, Jülich, Federal Republic of Germany, 12 - 14 MAY 1970)","year":1970,"doi":"10.1088/0029-5515/10/4/012","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-ccef4f212b/oa-cn"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"review-only","reason":"Nuclear Fusion 1970: the Jülich closed-cycle MHD specialists' meeting report, by title — the programmes that aimed at reactor heat sources, none of which is a fission-heated generator run."},{"title":"GASEOUS CORE REACTOR WITH MHD CONVERSION FOR ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATION.","year":1971,"found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-ccef4f212b/oa-cn"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"proposal-only","reason":"1971 (OSTI): a gaseous-core reactor with MHD conversion, by title — a concept."},{"title":"Experimental Plans for Subsystems of a Shock Wave Driven Gas Core Reactor","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-ccef4f212b/oa-cn"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"proposal-only","reason":"Undated report: experimental plans for a shock-wave-driven gas-core reactor's subsystems, by title — plans."}],"result":"inconclusive","completeness":"partial","reviewed_by":"Ava Kim's loop-3 lane (Claude Opus 5); titles screened and ten abstracts read on OpenAlex; the second reader's confirmation pending (pass 30)","reviewed_on":"2026-09-21","limitations":["OpenAlex only (21/09, 11:17 am Sydney): driver-mechanism 2,909 works reported (the reactor literature), the first 100 by relevance and the first 50 newest screened at title level, the rest unscreened; mechanism-pair 65 (the nuclear-MHD concept literature of 1962–2011 among boundary-layer and nanofluid papers matched on 'MHD effect'); whole-chain 1; demonstration-precision 0; Semantic Scholar answers 429 keyless (owner exception e953) and Google Scholar a captcha — both mandatory for a negative, neither run","the composite-name form (21/09, 11:32 am Sydney): four terms frozen on the second reader's ruling (fission-fragment-ionized plasma MHD deliberately excluded as a sibling mechanism); 34 works, screened at title level only — the 1968 Japanese review and the 1970 Jülich report are the places a reactor-heated test would be reported and are unread; Semantic Scholar and Google Scholar owe the form","two hits without abstracts (Hattori 1970; Pavshuk & Panchenko 2008) are insufficient-information until read","pass 49 (21/09 ~11:29 pm Sydney): every planned Semantic Scholar query was attempted once through the anonymous pool — 5 of 5 answered HTTP 429 at the first request (the runs above, each with its literal query, key and time); Google Scholar served its bot check at the first load of the driver-mechanism form (recorded as an attempt with nothing screened). Both engines are mandatory for a negative under route-search-v1, so the record stays partial and inconclusive: the outstanding obligations are the Semantic Scholar runs for every mandatory key and the Google Scholar runs to the protocol depth; OpenAlex's forms are complete. A blocked request is evidence that an engine was attempted, never that its query returned nothing."],"conclusion":"None found in the runs made (a partial, never a protocol-complete negative): the fission → MHD literature OpenAlex returns is conceptual — gas-core and vapor-core reactor designs feeding disk or vortex MHD channels (1962–1993), closed-cycle nonequilibrium-plasma system studies (2011), numerical fissioning-gas flows (1995) and conductivity models (1992) — with one measured constituent (a neutron-induced helium plasma, 1966) and no report of a fission-heated gas delivering MHD power to a load; the composite-name form adds the whole nuclear-MHD concept literature (1965–2006) and still no such run, and the second reader's own search agrees: Rosa's 10 kW machine ran on an arc furnace and NASA Lewis's closed-loop facility on its own heater, with reactors as the intended future source. One Japanese report (Hattori 1970) remains to be read. Inconclusive as a route search until the Scholar and Semantic Scholar runs exist.","source_run_ids":["search:2026-09-21-p-ccef4f212b"],"follow_up":{"canonical_claim_review":"not-applicable","canonical_pathway_review":"not-applicable","candidate_source_ids":[]},"reviewed":true},{"id":"search:2026-09-21-p-8200d7ab7e-partial","target":{"kind":"path","path":"p-8200d7ab7e","claims":["claim:binding-drives-fission","claim:fission-produces-hot-gas","claim:hot-gas-drives-thermal-emission","claim:thermal-emission-converts-light"]},"protocol_version":"route-search-v1","started_at":"2026-09-21T11:17:00+10:00","completed_at":"2026-09-21T11:30:00+10:00","objective":"exact-composition","composition_terms":[{"term":"nuclear light bulb","evidence":["source:latham-rodgers-1972-nuclear-light-bulb"]},{"term":"gas-core reactor","evidence":["source:schneider-thom-1975-fissioning-uranium-plasmas"],"broad":true},{"term":"gaseous-core reactor","evidence":["source:schneider-thom-1975-fissioning-uranium-plasmas"],"broad":true},{"term":"plasma-core reactor","evidence":["source:schneider-thom-1975-fissioning-uranium-plasmas"],"broad":true},{"term":"fissioning uranium plasma","evidence":["source:lee-1974-fissioning-uranium-plasma"],"broad":true}],"inclusion_criteria":["a physical experiment in which a fissioning gas or plasma, heated by its own fission, emits measured thermal radiation delivered as light (route-search-v1 §3, output Light)"],"exclusion_criteria":["conceptual designs and system studies of gas-core reactors and nuclear light bulbs (proposal-only)","radiant-heat tests with arc or RF plasmas standing in for the fissioning gas (source-variant)","reactor-material emissivity, thermometry and instrumentation papers matched on 'thermal emission' (not hits)"],"runs":[{"id":"search:2026-09-21-p-8200d7ab7e/oa-dm1","engine":"openalex","query_form":"route-driver-mechanism","query_key":"driver-mechanism:1","query":"(\"Nuclear binding-energy difference\" OR \"radioactive decay\" OR \"fissile configuration\" OR \"nuclear fuel\" OR \"fissile fuel\") AND (\"Nuclear fission\" OR \"fission reactor\" OR \"nuclear reactor\" OR \"reactor core\" OR \"fissioning 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engine","year":1970,"found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8200d7ab7e/oa-cn"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"theory-only","reason":"United Aircraft 1970: the spectral radiant flux of the fuel region computed, by title — analysis."},{"title":"Theoretical investigation of the radiant emission spectrum from the fuel region of a nuclear light bulb engine","year":1969,"found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8200d7ab7e/oa-cn"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"theory-only","reason":"United Aircraft 1969: the fuel region's emission spectrum computed, by title — theory."},{"title":"Initial radio-frequency gas heating experiments to simulate the thermal environment in a nuclear light bulb reactor","year":1969,"found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8200d7ab7e/oa-cn"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"wrong-driver","reason":"United Aircraft 1969: RF-heated gas standing in for the fissioning fuel — the radiant thermal environment reproduced without fission (the second reader: not a source-variant, since the conversion's driver is absent)."},{"title":"Results of experiments to simulate radiant heating of propellant in a nuclear light bulb engine using a D-C arc radiant energy source","year":1970,"found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8200d7ab7e/oa-cn"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"wrong-driver","reason":"United Aircraft 1970: a DC-arc radiant source heating propellant in place of the fissioning fuel, by title — the radiant handoff demonstrated with a non-fission source."},{"title":"Development of a high intensity RF radiant energy source for simulating the thermal environment of the nuclear light bulb reactor","year":1971,"found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8200d7ab7e/oa-cn"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"wrong-driver","reason":"United Aircraft 1971: an RF radiant source built to simulate the reactor's thermal environment, by title."},{"title":"Analytical design and performance studies of nuclear furnace tests of small nuclear light bulb models","year":1972,"found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8200d7ab7e/oa-cn"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"insufficient-information","reason":"United Aircraft 1972: designs for in-reactor (Nuclear Furnace) tests of small light-bulb models — whether any in-reactor test was carried out before the programme ended is the one question that decides this route, unread."},{"title":"High temperature UF6 RF plasma experiments applicable to uranium plasma core reactors","year":1979,"found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8200d7ab7e/oa-cn"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"wrong-driver","reason":"NASA-era 1979: UF₆ plasma heated by RF, applicable to plasma-core reactors, by title — the plasma made without fission."},{"title":"Nuclear characteristics of a fissioning uranium plasma test reactor with light-water cooling","year":1973,"found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8200d7ab7e/oa-cn"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"proposal-only","reason":"1973: the nuclear characteristics of a proposed fissioning-uranium-plasma test reactor, by title — a design."},{"title":"Nuclear light bulb","year":1991,"found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8200d7ab7e/oa-cn"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"review-only","reason":"1991: a nuclear light bulb overview, by title."}],"result":"inconclusive","completeness":"partial","reviewed_by":"Ava Kim's loop-3 lane (Claude Opus 5); titles screened; the second reader's confirmation pending (pass 30)","reviewed_on":"2026-09-21","limitations":["OpenAlex only (21/09, 11:18 am Sydney): driver-mechanism 2,909 works reported, the first 100 by relevance and the first 50 newest screened at title level, the rest unscreened; mechanism-pair 15 — graphite emissivity, gasifier thermometry, TMI-2 thermal interactions and textbook chapters, none a fissioning gas radiating light; whole-chain 0; demonstration-precision 0; Semantic Scholar answers 429 keyless (owner exception e953) and Google Scholar a captcha — both mandatory for a negative, neither run","the composite-name form (21/09, 11:34 am Sydney): five terms frozen with verified sources on the second reader's ruling; 222 works reported, the first 100 screened at title level, none read in full; the second reader's corrections recorded — the Langley plasma-focus spectral experiment (Jalufka et al.) is constituent-only (the plasma was made by the focus, no spectral effect of the fissions), the RF and DC-arc simulations are wrong-driver not source-variant, and the Walters & Schneider neutron-field discharge (an effect of fissions on an independently driven plasma's radiation, per a later NASA report) would at most be driver-only-modifies — none of these three was returned by the form and none is recorded as a hit until its primary text is located; Semantic Scholar and Google Scholar owe the form","pass 49 (21/09 ~11:29 pm Sydney): every planned Semantic Scholar query was attempted once through the anonymous pool — 5 of 5 answered HTTP 429 at the first request (the runs above, each with its literal query, key and time); Google Scholar served its bot check at the first load of the driver-mechanism form (recorded as an attempt with nothing screened). Both engines are mandatory for a negative under route-search-v1, so the record stays partial and inconclusive: the outstanding obligations are the Semantic Scholar runs for every mandatory key and the Google Scholar runs to the protocol depth; OpenAlex's forms are complete. A blocked request is evidence that an engine was attempted, never that its query returned nothing."],"conclusion":"None found in the runs made (a partial, never a protocol-complete negative): the composite-name form reaches the nuclear light bulb programme — spectral and start-up analyses, RF and DC-arc radiant-environment simulations, transparent-wall tests and designs for in-reactor tests of small models — and none of it is a fissioning gas radiating light as its product; the fission-plus-plasma experiments the second reader knows (the Langley plasma focus; the Walters & Schneider neutron-field discharge) do not establish the fission → radiation handoff either. Whether any in-reactor light-bulb model test was run before the programme ended is the open question. Inconclusive as a route search until the Scholar and Semantic Scholar runs exist.","source_run_ids":["search:2026-09-21-p-8200d7ab7e"],"follow_up":{"canonical_claim_review":"not-applicable","canonical_pathway_review":"not-applicable","candidate_source_ids":[]},"reviewed":true},{"id":"search:2026-09-21-p-a093d7ecc5-partial","target":{"kind":"path","path":"p-a093d7ecc5","claims":["claim:thermal-expansion-drives","claim:thermal-expansion-produces-stress","claim:flexo-drives","claim:flexo-produces-charge","claim:surface-charge-converts-electricity"]},"protocol_version":"route-search-v1","started_at":"2026-09-21T00:55:00+10:00","completed_at":"2026-09-21T01:05:00+10:00","objective":"exact-composition","composition_terms":[{"term":"thermoflexoelectric effect","evidence":["source:wei-2024-thermoflexoelectric-pn-junction"]},{"term":"thermo-flexoelectric 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insulators","year":2026,"found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-a093d7ecc5/cc-zubko-2013"],"access":"full-text","decision":"sink-variant","reason":"arXiv:2605.17224 (Iwakiri, Miyata & Mori, NIMS, 17 May 2026; not yet in OpenAlex, found through the reviewer and confirmed on arXiv), read in full. An on-chip heater driven at 1 kHz imposes a temperature gradient (about 0.5 K modulation) across 0.25–1 mm substrates; the non-uniform thermal expansion's strain gradient produces an out-of-plane flexoelectric polarization detected as a second-harmonic voltage and, more quantitatively, as the screening (displacement) current in a detector electrode, in MgO, Al₂O₃, MnO, mica, PET, PEN, polyimide and soda-lime glass; the response scales with the coefficient of thermal expansion, is reproduced by finite-element thermo-mechanics, grows as 1/thickness and by over an order of magnitude at the glass and antiferromagnetic transitions. Driver, both mechanisms and their order are physically present; the sink is a measured polarization and its displacement current, not electrical work delivered to a load, so the route's recorded output is not demonstrated."},{"title":"Thermally Induced Flexo-Type Effects in Nanopatterned Multiferroic Layers","year":2020,"doi":"10.1002/adfm.201910371","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-a093d7ecc5/oa-mp12","search:2026-09-21-p-a093d7ecc5/cc-zubko-2013"],"access":"abstract","decision":"constituent-only","reason":"Thermal expansion in a nanopatterned array of ferromagnetic nanocylinders in a ferroelectric polymer produces giant strain gradients at moderate temperatures that depolarise the ferroelectric via the flexoelectric effect (and change the magnetisation flexomagnetically), with finite-element support — the thermal-expansion → strain-gradient → flexoelectric handoff observed, no electrical output (abstract read on OpenAlex)."},{"title":"Thermal gradient induced flexoelectric effects in bulk Ba0.67Sr0.33TiO3","year":2016,"doi":"10.1063/1.4949358","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-a093d7ecc5/cc-zubko-2013"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"The converse effect: a temperature gradient along symmetric BST bars produces an electric-field gradient through the temperature-dependent permittivity, and the strain that gradient induces is measured — field gradient → strain, the reverse of the route's strain gradient → polarization (abstract read on OpenAlex)."},{"title":"Strain gradient induced thermal-electrical response in paraelectric Na0.5Bi0.5TiO3-based ceramics","year":2018,"doi":"10.1103/physrevmaterials.2.034401","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-a093d7ecc5/cc-zubko-2013"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-driver","reason":"A pyroelectric-like temperature-dependent current appears in paraelectric NBT ceramics under bending deformation, attributed to flexoelectrically induced conduction; the strain gradient is imposed mechanically, not by thermal expansion (abstract read on OpenAlex)."},{"title":"Large Thermal–Electrical Response and Rectifying Conduction Behavior in Asymmetrically Reduced Ferroelectric Ceramics","year":2019,"doi":"10.1021/acsaelm.8b00107","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-a093d7ecc5/cc-zubko-2013"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-driver","reason":"Thermal-electrical conversion 'in a uniform temperature environment' from a reduction-induced built-in field and conductivity in NBT ceramics (0.18 mW/cm³ claimed): no temperature gradient and no thermal-expansion strain gradient; the driver and the mechanism are not the route's (abstract read on OpenAlex)."},{"title":"Enhancement of thermal-electrical like response by flexoelectric effect in sodium bismuth titanate bilayer ceramics with compositional inhomogeneity","year":2023,"doi":"10.1007/s43207-023-00326-0","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-a093d7ecc5/oa-mp12"],"access":"abstract","decision":"insufficient-information","reason":"A bilayer NBT ceramic whose compositional gradient and differing thermal expansion leave a sintering strain gradient; a 'thermal-electrical like response' larger than the single layer's is attributed to a flexoelectric-like built-in potential coupled with conductivity. Whether an imposed temperature gradient drives a thermal-expansion strain gradient in operation, and what output is measured, cannot be settled from the abstract (Springer page)."},{"title":"Flexo-Pyroelectric Effect","year":2025,"doi":"10.34133/research.1048","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-a093d7ecc5/cc-zubko-2013"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-driver","reason":"A strain gradient imposed by an AFM tip gives centrosymmetric SrTiO₃ a pyroelectric coefficient under temperature fluctuations — the strain gradient is mechanical and the driver a temperature change in time, not a gradient's thermal expansion (abstract read on OpenAlex)."},{"title":"Thermal excitation of flexoelectricity in silicon","year":2025,"doi":"10.1103/dxp2-cf75","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-a093d7ecc5/cc-zubko-2013"],"access":"abstract","decision":"constituent-only","reason":"The flexoelectric coefficient of intrinsic and doped silicon measured from −50 to 200 °C (15.2 nC/m to 1.8 μC/m in intrinsic Si): a material property of the second mechanism, no thermal-expansion drive and no output (abstract read on OpenAlex)."},{"title":"Temperature Gradient Introduced Ferroelectric Self-Poling in BiFeO3 Ceramics","year":2013,"doi":"10.1111/jace.12580","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-a093d7ecc5/oa-dm1"],"access":"abstract","decision":"constituent-only","reason":"A sintering temperature gradient and its thermal strain separate bismuth and oxygen vacancies into defect dipoles whose internal field (> 10 kV/cm) poles the ceramic on cooling — a temperature gradient acting through thermal strain on polarization, but via defect dipoles rather than the flexoelectric effect, and with no output (abstract read on OpenAlex)."},{"title":"Pyroelectric, piezoelectric, flexoelectric, and thermal polarization effects in ionic crystals","year":1987,"doi":"10.1070/pu1987v030n07abeh002926","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-a093d7ecc5/cc-zubko-2013"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"theory-only","reason":"Tagantsev's review including the thermal-polarization prediction the 2026 preprint tests; theory (title and the preprint's citation of it)."},{"title":"Dual-Mode Flexoelectric Nanogenerators Activated by Light and Heat for Broad-Spectral Photodetection and Thermal Response","year":2026,"doi":"10.1002/adfm.75910","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-a093d7ecc5/reviewer-web"],"access":"abstract","decision":"insufficient-information","reason":"Experimental heat-driven flexoelectric nanogenerator (Han et al. 2026, Adv. Funct. Mater.): under temperature variation the heterojunction components deform differentially, the interfacial strain gradient drives flexoelectric polarization and a measured current (effective pyroelectric coefficient up to 7518 μC m⁻² K⁻¹). The accessible record does not establish electrical work delivered to a load, and whether the imposed thermal field is the route's spatial temperature gradient (rather than a temperature change with a coefficient-of-expansion mismatch) must be checked in the full text, which is paywalled — an owner read is requested. If the full text confirms the driver and still reports no load: sink-variant; if it reports load power attributable to thermal-mode flexoelectric generation, it may supersede Iwakiri 2026 as the qualifying hit."},{"title":"Exact solutions for thermally induced electromechanical fields of PN junctions in centrosymmetric semiconductors","year":2024,"doi":"10.1063/5.0218259","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-a093d7ecc5/reviewer-web"],"access":"abstract","decision":"theory-only","reason":"Wei et al. 2024 (J. Appl. Phys.) define the thermoflexoelectric effect — temperature gradients generate inhomogeneous strains and induce flexoelectric polarizations — and solve a one-dimensional PN-junction model; theory, no experiment, no output. Its name for the composition is now an alias of the flexoelectric effect."},{"title":"Flexoelectric polarization induced by inhomogeneous heating and implications for energy harvesting","year":2019,"doi":"10.1016/j.ijsolstr.2018.12.003","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-a093d7ecc5/reviewer-web"],"access":"abstract","decision":"theory-only","reason":"Yurkov, Dejneka & Yudin 2019 (Int. J. Solids Struct.): a variational theory of the polarization of an inhomogeneously heated thin plate, with a calculated waste-heat-to-electricity bound of up to tens of watts per kilogram of flexoelectric material; theory, no device — a citation-chase seed for the next sitting."},{"title":"Recent developments of the thermopolarization effect investigation","year":1989,"doi":"10.1080/00150198908014283","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-a093d7ecc5/oa-cn"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"Trepakov, Nurieva & Tagantsev 1989 (Ferroelectrics 94, 377–381): the thermopolarization effect measured in centrosymmetric SrTiO₃ and KTaO₃ and in piezoelectric KH₂PO₄ single crystals 'in spite of the tertiary pyroeffect competition', with criteria separating a 'proper' (non-flexoelectric) thermopolarization from the flexoelectric contribution — it explicitly distinguishes its response from the thermal-expansion → flexoelectric chain this route spells, so it is evidence for the atlas's direct thermopolarization effect (recorded in pass 28), not for this route."},{"title":"Thermopolarization currents in dielectrics","year":1982,"found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-a093d7ecc5/oa-cn"],"access":"full-text","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"Kholkin, Trepakov & Smolenskii 1982 (JETP Letters 35, 124–127; read in full from the archive): thermopolarization currents in centrosymmetric PMN under an end-to-end temperature difference, linear in d(ΔT)/dt and reversing with ∇T, B₁₁ ≈ 3 × 10⁻¹² C/(cm·K) — attributed to Gurevich's direct thermopolarization effect, with no thermal-expansion strain-gradient mechanism considered; evidence for the direct effect (status reported until its separation from the flexoelectric contribution is read), not for this route."},{"title":"Frequency and temperature dependence of the thermopolarization response in dynamic investigations","year":1994,"doi":"10.1002/pssa.2211440228","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-a093d7ecc5/oa-cn"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"Rafikov, Savinov, Jastrabík & Trepakov 1994 (phys. stat. sol. (a) 144): the dynamic thermopolarization response of paraelectric PbNi₁/₃Nb₂/₃O₃ and PbMg₁/₃Nb₂/₃O₃ measured in low- and high-frequency regimes (∝ ω^½ and ω^−½), the low-frequency response inversely proportional to thickness — the predicted behaviour of the direct thermopolarization effect, without establishing the thermal-expansion → strain-gradient → flexoelectric chain; evidence for the direct effect, not for this route."},{"title":"Theory of Thermopolarization Effect","year":2025,"doi":"10.1021/acs.nanolett.4c05870","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-a093d7ecc5/oa-cn"],"access":"abstract","decision":"theory-only","reason":"Onishi, Isobe, Shitade & Nagaosa 2025 (Nano Letters): the polarization response of an insulator to a temperature gradient described through the free-energy response to an electric-field gradient (the Q tensor), with a generalized Mott relation and an analogy to the anomalous Hall and Nernst effects — a direct thermopolarization theory that does not go through thermal expansion."},{"title":"Electric polarization in crystals and its response to thermal and elastic perturbations","year":1991,"doi":"10.1080/01411599108213201","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-a093d7ecc5/oa-cn"],"access":"abstract","decision":"review-only","reason":"Tagantsev 1991 (Phase Transitions): pyroelectricity, piezoelectricity, flexoelectricity and the thermopolarization effect (polarization response to a temperature gradient) on one theoretical footing; the definitions, not an experiment."},{"title":"Reverse thermopolarization effects in dielectrics","year":1995,"doi":"10.1080/07315179508204274","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-a093d7ecc5/oa-cn"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"Trepakov, Rafikov, Marvan, Savinov & Jastrabík 1995 (Ferroelectrics Letters): the converse — a temperature difference of ≈ 10⁻⁴ K appearing across a PMN capacitor charged at 10⁶ V/m, read as a 'dielectric Peltier effect'; the reverse direction of the route."},{"title":"On-chip detection of anisotropic thermopolarization in quartz","year":2026,"doi":"10.1103/2n32-34z8","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-a093d7ecc5/oa-cn"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"Physical Review Research, 14 September 2026 (Crossref lists no authors or abstract): the companion to Iwakiri 2026 on piezoelectric quartz, where by the second reader's reading (pass 24) the thermal stress feeds piezoelectric rather than flexoelectric polarization — a different coupling, to be read when accessible."},{"title":"Antisymmetric thermopolarization by electric toroidicity","year":2022,"doi":"10.1103/PhysRevB.105.245125","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-a093d7ecc5/oa-cn"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"theory-only","reason":"Nasu & Hayami 2022 (Phys. Rev. B 105, 245125): the thermopolarization tensor's antisymmetric part from electric toroidicity — theory of the direct effect, not this route."},{"title":"Size-dependent analysis of thermoelastic damping in thermoflexoelectric nanobeam resonators","year":2026,"doi":"10.1007/s00707-026-04729-y","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-a093d7ecc5/oa-cn"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"theory-only","reason":"Acta Mechanica 2026: a thermoflexoelectric nanobeam damping model, by title."}],"result":"inconclusive","completeness":"partial","reviewed_by":"Ava Kim's loop-3 lane (Claude Opus 5); abstracts, the 2026 preprint's full text and the citation-chase titles read by the lane; ChatGPT (GPT-5 Thinking) as second reader in pass 24","reviewed_on":"2026-09-21","limitations":["Semantic Scholar runs not made (anonymous API pool answered HTTP 429 throughout; key requested from the owner, exception e953); Google Scholar answered every query with a captcha in this sitting (the lane completes none), so none of its four forms is run — both are mandatory for a negative","OpenAlex driver-mechanism query: 2,185 works reported, the first 100 by relevance and the first 50 newest screened at title level (protocol depth), the rest unscreened; the whole-chain and demonstration-precision queries returned 0","citation chase on OpenAlex reference lists and citing works only (Zubko 2013: 137 of 143 references, the first 1,000 of 1,102 citers; Tagantsev 1986: 9, 731), screened at title level with a thermal / heat / temperature filter","the preprint is not peer-reviewed and reports no output power; its signal magnitudes (second-harmonic displacement currents at 1 kHz heater drive) are not recorded as measurements","the term bundle lacked the field's name for the composition — the thermoflexoelectric effect (Wei et al. 2024) — when the OpenAlex runs were made; the aliases thermoflexoelectric effect / thermo-flexoelectric effect / thermoflexoelectricity were added after the second reader's review and the driver-mechanism and mechanism-pair forms are to be rerun with them (OpenAlex's shared anonymous daily budget was exhausted on 21/09; rerun pending)","Han et al. 2026 is paywalled; its thermal-mode driver and any load measurement are unverified pending an owner read","the thermoflexoelectric rerun (pass 27, 21/09 10:17 am Sydney): the same 158 works, none new — a term that names the composition without the thermal-expansion vocabulary (Wei 2024 writes 'inhomogeneous strains') is unreachable by a driver-AND-mechanism or mechanism-pair form; the reviewer's ruling that day added the composite-name form to route-search-v1","the composite-name form (OpenAlex, 21/09 10:40 am Sydney): 45 works, 44 new — screened at title level, nine abstracts read; the thermopolarization measurements of the 1980s–1990s (Kholkin, Trepakov, Tagantsev, Rafikov) are recorded insufficient-information until the second reader rules whether their 'proper' thermopolarization is a distinct coupling the atlas lacks or the route's own flexoelectric mechanism; Semantic Scholar and Google Scholar still owe this form","pass 49 (21/09 ~11:29 pm Sydney): every planned Semantic Scholar query was attempted once through the anonymous pool — 5 of 5 answered HTTP 429 at the first request (the runs above, each with its literal query, key and time); Google Scholar served its bot check at the first load of the driver-mechanism form (recorded as an attempt with nothing screened). Both engines are mandatory for a negative under route-search-v1, so the record stays partial and inconclusive: the outstanding obligations are the Semantic Scholar runs for every mandatory key and the Google Scholar runs to the protocol depth; OpenAlex's forms are complete. A blocked request is evidence that an engine was attempted, never that its query returned nothing."],"conclusion":"The exact composition has been observed but not converted: Iwakiri, Miyata & Mori 2026 impose a temperature gradient whose thermal expansion produces a strain gradient whose flexoelectric polarization is detected (voltage and displacement current) in eight centrosymmetric insulators, scaling with the expansion coefficient — every mechanism in order, no electrical work delivered. Nothing in the OpenAlex runs or the two chases puts a load on such a device; the thermal-flexoelectric literature otherwise concerns the converse effect, bending-imposed gradients, uniform-temperature conduction effects and flexo-induced pyroelectricity. Inconclusive as a route search until the Scholar and Semantic Scholar runs exist; the open question is now narrow: has anyone extracted work. After the second reader's review (pass 24) the composition is recorded as the observed pathway pathway:thermal-expansion-flexoelectric-response — status observed, observed_through the flexoelectric charge step, the final conversion to work unsupported — and the route reads observed · output not delivered while its class stays candidate. The reviewer's nearest additional hit, Han et al. 2026 (a heat-driven flexoelectric nanogenerator whose differential thermal deformation supplies the strain gradient; current response only in the accessible record), stays insufficient-information pending its full text. The composite-name form (pass 27) then surfaced what the decomposed forms could not: thermopolarization currents measured in dielectrics from 1982 (Kholkin, Trepakov & Smolenskii), in SrTiO₃, KTaO₃ and KH₂PO₄ by 1989 (Trepakov, Nurieva & Tagantsev, who separated a 'proper' non-flexoelectric thermopolarization from the flexoelectric 'tertiary pyroeffect'), and dynamically in relaxor paraelectrics by 1994 — polarization observed under a temperature gradient decades before the 2026 preprint, still with no load; the second reader's ruling (pass 28) made the direct effect its own phenomenon and coupling family, so those measurements are evidence for it and wrong-coupling here; Iwakiri's α-scaling supports attributing their dominant measured component to the flexoelectric chain without excluding a direct 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Aerosol Sci. 25, 1049–1063): the mechanism-pair form's only hit, an electrospray Taylor-cone flow paper that matches a generator term incidentally; no rotating generator, no thermal Marangoni rotor."},{"title":"Collective Oscillations of Photothermal Micromotors under Static Illumination","year":2026,"doi":"10.1021/acs.langmuir.6c02095","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-62809bc294/oa-dm1-newest"],"access":"abstract","decision":"constituent-only","reason":"Wang et al. 2026 (Langmuir 42, 21207–21216): photothermal micromotors whose light-made temperature difference moves them by self-thermophoresis and thermocapillary forces (≈ 70 μm/s) and by thermal convection (≈ 2422 μm/s) in an oscillating collective — the thermal Marangoni → motion half, no generator."},{"title":"Racing-car-inspired electrical/chemical dual-driven actuators for swimming Marangoni robots based on carbon nanotube composites","year":2026,"doi":"10.26599/nr.2026.94908831","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-62809bc294/oa-dm1-newest"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"wrong-driver","reason":"Nano Research 2026: swimming Marangoni robots driven electrically and chemically, by title; not a temperature gradient, no generator."},{"title":"A Tunable Island-Structured Bioinspired Interfacial Evaporator for Efficient Seawater Desalination and Energy Harvesting","year":2026,"doi":"10.1002/adfm.75319","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-62809bc294/oa-dm1-newest"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"Mu et al. 2026 (Adv. Funct. Mater. 36, e75319): a solar interfacial evaporator whose salt tolerance relies on solutal and thermal Marangoni convection, with a thermal module harvesting the evaporation's waste heat at up to 1.083 W m⁻² — the harvesting is thermoelectric, the Marangoni flow moves salt, not a rotor."},{"title":"Magnetohydrodynamics Thermocapillary Marangoni Convection Heat Transfer of Power-Law Fluids Driven by Temperature Gradient","year":2013,"doi":"10.1115/1.4023394","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-62809bc294/oa-dm1"],"access":"abstract","decision":"simulation-only","reason":"Lin, Zheng & Zhang 2013 (J. Heat Transfer 135, 051702): numerical solutions for MHD thermocapillary convection of a power-law fluid under a temperature gradient — heat transfer, no body, no generator."}],"result":"inconclusive","completeness":"partial","reviewed_by":"Ava Kim's loop-3 lane (Claude Opus 5); titles screened and four abstracts read on Crossref","reviewed_on":"2026-09-21","limitations":["OpenAlex only (21/09, 10:49 am Sydney): driver-mechanism 1,424 works reported, the first 100 by relevance and the first 50 newest screened at title level (protocol depth), the rest unscreened; mechanism-pair 1, whole-chain 0, demonstration-precision 0, the reviewer's precision query 0; Semantic Scholar answers 429 keyless (owner exception e953) and Google Scholar a captcha — both mandatory for a negative, neither run","no composition term is frozen because no recorded source names a thermocapillary generator as a device; if the literature holds such a name the composite-name form becomes mandatory once it is added with its source","the driver-mechanism list is thermocapillary convection and heat transfer (crystal growth, welding pools, films), Marangoni micromotors and robots, and evaporators; nothing on it turns a rotor or a generator with a temperature gradient","pass 49 (21/09 ~11:29 pm Sydney): every planned Semantic Scholar query was attempted once through the anonymous pool — 4 of 4 answered HTTP 429 at the first request (the runs above, each with its literal query, key and time); Google Scholar served its bot check at the first load of the driver-mechanism form (recorded as an attempt with nothing screened). Both engines are mandatory for a negative under route-search-v1, so the record stays partial and inconclusive: the outstanding obligations are the Semantic Scholar runs for every mandatory key and the Google Scholar runs to the protocol depth; OpenAlex's forms are complete. A blocked request is evidence that an engine was attempted, never that its query returned nothing."],"conclusion":"No demonstration known and none found: nothing OpenAlex returned closes the chain from a temperature gradient through a thermocapillary-driven body to a rotating generator. The two halves the atlas already records stand on their own evidence (thermal Marangoni gears and floaters that move; a Marangoni rotor turning a generator under a solutal source), and the literature between them is convection, heat transfer and micromotors. Inconclusive as a route search until the Scholar and Semantic Scholar runs exist.","source_run_ids":["search:2026-09-21-p-62809bc294"],"follow_up":{"canonical_claim_review":"not-applicable","canonical_pathway_review":"not-applicable","candidate_source_ids":[]},"reviewed":true},{"id":"search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8-partial","target":{"kind":"path","path":"p-8fba925ce8","claims":["claim:temperature-drives-thermo-osmosis","claim:thermo-osmosis-produces-flow","claim:fluid-flow-carrier-drives-lift","claim:lift-produces-motion","claim:motion-converts-mechanical-work"]},"protocol_version":"route-search-v1","started_at":"2026-09-20T22:30:00+10:00","completed_at":"2026-09-20T23:15:00+10:00","objective":"exact-composition","composition_terms":[],"inclusion_criteria":["a physical experiment or device in which a temperature difference drives thermo-osmotic (vapour-gap) transport that pressurises or moves a liquid, that liquid loads a turbine (aerodynamic or hydrodynamic lift) directly, and shaft work is measured or delivered (route-search-v1 §3)"],"exclusion_criteria":["theory, simulation or proposals (recorded as such, never as demonstrations)","the pressurised flow produced and its pressure × flux reported as a power density, with no turbine on the bench (constituent-only)","the same driver and thermo-osmotic stage with an electrokinetic, electrodialytic or electrolytic sink in place of the turbine (sink-variant), or with an extra conversion phenomenon between the recorded steps (longer-chain)"],"runs":[{"id":"search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/oa-dm1","engine":"openalex","query_form":"route-driver-mechanism","query_key":"driver-mechanism:1","query":"(\"Temperature gradient\" OR \"temperature difference\" OR \"thermal gradient\" OR \"ΔT\" OR \"waste heat\") AND (\"Thermo-osmosis\" OR \"thermal osmosis\" OR \"thermo-osmotic flow\" OR thermoosmosis OR \"thermo-osmotic\" OR \"thermo-osmotic energy conversion\" OR \"vapor pressure-driven osmosis\" OR VPDO OR \"pressure-retarded 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e953)","executed_at":"2026-09-21T13:24:04.658Z","request_url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/graph/v1/paper/search?query=Temperature%20gradient%20thermal%20gradient%20%CE%94T%20waste%20heat%20thermo-osmosis%20thermal%20osmosis%20thermo-osmotic%20flow%20thermoosmosis%20thermo-osmotic%20energy%20conversion%20vapor%20pressure-driven%20osmosis%20VPDO%20pressure-retarded%20membrane%20distillation%20PRMD%20hydraulic%20turbine%20turbine%20mechanical%20work%20shaft%20work%20torque%20motion%20experiment%20experimental%20measured%20device%20prototype&limit=100&fields=title%2Cyear%2CexternalIds","engine_version":null,"index_snapshot":null,"sort":"relevance","filters":{"limit":100},"result_count_reported":null,"records_retrieved":0,"records_screened":0,"records_read":0},{"id":"search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/gs-attempt-dm1","engine":"google-scholar","query_form":"route-driver-mechanism","query_key":"driver-mechanism:1","query":"(\"Temperature gradient\" OR \"temperature difference\" OR \"thermal gradient\" OR \"waste heat\") AND (\"thermo-osmosis\" OR thermoosmosis OR \"thermal osmosis\")","positions_screened":"none","interruption":"pass 49 (21/09 11:29 pm Sydney): Google Scholar served its bot check (form#gs_captcha_f, 'Please show you're not a robot') at the first page load of this compact form; the page header carried 'About 1,720 results' but served no positions, so no count is recorded; the lane never completes a bot check — the run stops here under the continuation rule with nothing screened","executed_at":"2026-09-21T13:29:11.611Z","engine_version":null,"index_snapshot":null,"sort":"relevance","result_count_reported":null,"records_retrieved":0,"records_screened":0,"records_read":0}],"screening":{"records_retrieved":156,"unique_records":139,"title_abstract_screened":139,"full_text_read":1},"hits":[{"title":"Permeate gap thermo-osmotic system for simultaneous freshwater production, energy storage, and power generation","year":2024,"doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2024.118636","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-straub-2016","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-straub-2017"],"access":"full-text","decision":"longer-chain","reason":"Physical thermo-osmotic laboratory system (32 cm² permeate-gap module, hot feed to 70 °C, cold 20 °C): the pump-free membrane flow raises water into an elevated reservoir, storing gravitational potential energy, before the stored water descends through a small hydro-turbine generator and lights a 2 W-rated bulb (no output figure reported; head limited to about 1.5 m; liquid entry pressure 222 kPa). The gravitational storage and descent stage — the atlas's own hydro spelling, gravitational potential difference → hydrostatic descent → hydraulic pressure → lift — is an additional conversion between the target route's thermo-osmotic flow and turbine action (§3 item 6), so the exact composition is not demonstrated by it. Mechanical work was physically delivered (item 4 passes qualitatively). The 156.75 kW, 0.113 W m⁻², 1.04 % and 72-hour figures are the modelled solar case study. The lane notes its reservation: hydrostatically an open standpipe is a pressure accumulator, but the atlas records head conversion as a phenomenon and must apply that to itself."},{"title":"Thermal-driven osmosis utilizing hollow fiber membranes: Sustainable dye water treatment and electricity extraction","year":2024,"doi":"10.1016/j.desal.2024.117485","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/oa-dm1-newest","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/oa-mp12"],"access":"abstract","decision":"insufficient-information","reason":"Abstract reports a hollow-fibre thermo-osmotic system in which accumulated condensate pressure drives a water turbine and states electricity generation was achieved, but the 16.75 W m⁻³ result is stated for ideal conditions and the paper also uses a theoretical optimisation model; the inaccessible full text prevents determining whether the turbine's electrical output was physically measured. Library full-text review required."},{"title":"Harvesting low-grade heat energy using thermo-osmotic vapour transport through nanoporous membranes","year":2016,"doi":"10.1038/nenergy.2016.90","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/oa-dm1"],"access":"abstract","decision":"constituent-only","reason":"The recorded TOEC proposal: a hydrophobic nanoporous membrane passes a thermo-osmotic vapour flux into a pump-pressurised cold reservoir (up to 13 bar); 3.53 ± 0.29 W m⁻² is the pressure × flux of the pressurised flow. The turbine is proposed, not run."},{"title":"Simultaneous production of high-quality water and electrical power from aqueous feedstock's and waste heat by high-pressure membrane distillation","year":2014,"doi":"10.1080/19443994.2014.946724","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-xiao-2024"],"access":"abstract","decision":"constituent-only","reason":"TNO's MemPower: Memstill membrane distillation at high hydraulic pressure produces a pressurised distillate from low-grade heat — proof of principle of vapour transport against a hydraulic pressure gradient, with 'power densities … measured which are sufficient to drive the pumps'. Predates Straub 2016; no turbine described in the abstract."},{"title":"Stack Thermo-Osmotic System for Low-Grade Thermal Energy Conversion","year":2021,"doi":"10.1021/acsami.1c03395","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-straub-2016","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-straub-2017","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-luo-2024","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-xiao-2024"],"access":"abstract","decision":"constituent-only","reason":"A pump-free multistage permeate-gap TOEC: 1.39 ± 0.25 W m⁻² at 80 °C, efficiency linear in the stage number, 30-stage/5 MPa performance calculated. The power density is that of the pressurised flow; no turbine described."},{"title":"Harvesting net power and desalinating water by pressure-retarded membrane distillation","year":2021,"doi":"10.1007/s11431-021-1926-6","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/oa-dm1","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-straub-2016","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-straub-2017"],"access":"abstract","decision":"constituent-only","reason":"Multistage PRMD with conduction-dominated heat delivery: 188 L of fresh water and 27.8 kJ of pressure energy per m² per day between 80 and 40 °C, net positive with heat as the only input. The 'power' is the condensate's pressure energy; no turbine described."},{"title":"Pressure-retarded membrane distillation for simultaneous hypersaline brine desalination and low-grade heat harvesting","year":2019,"doi":"10.1016/j.memsci.2019.117765","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/oa-dm1","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-straub-2016","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-straub-2017","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-xiao-2024"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"constituent-only","reason":"Found by the PRMD alias on the re-run and by the chases; no abstract on OpenAlex or Crossref, not read. Lai et al. 2025's open-access review describes it as a PRMD experiment reaching a peak power density of 0.66 W m⁻² at 4 bar with 0.5 M NaCl feed (pressure × flux); no turbine is mentioned there. Classified from that secondary description and the title."},{"title":"Theoretical Analysis of Pressure Retarded Membrane Distillation (PRMD) Process for Simultaneous Production of Water and Electricity","year":2017,"doi":"10.1021/acs.iecr.7b03642","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/oa-mp12","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-straub-2016","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-straub-2017","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-xiao-2024"],"access":"abstract","decision":"theory-only","reason":"A mathematical model of DCMD combined with PRO in one module, 'producing electricity from a hydro-turbine' in the model (0.1738 kWh m⁻³ saved at a 3 % water penalty); no experiment."},{"title":"Energy Efficiency and Performance Limiting Effects in Thermo-Osmotic Energy Conversion from Low-Grade Heat","year":2017,"doi":"10.1021/acs.est.7b02213","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/oa-dm1","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/oa-mp12","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/oa-wc"],"access":"abstract","decision":"theory-only","reason":"The first energy-efficiency analysis of TOEC (4.1 %, 34 % of Carnot at 60/20 °C and 5 MPa; membrane property and heat-exchanger sensitivities). Model, no experiment; the only work the whole-chain query returned because it names the turbine."},{"title":"Performance analysis of the Thermo Osmotic Energy Conversion (TOEC) process for harvesting low-grade heat","year":2023,"doi":"10.1016/j.ceja.2023.100558","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/oa-dm1","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/oa-mp12"],"access":"abstract","decision":"theory-only","reason":"Mass- and heat-transfer evaluation of TOEC validated against experimental flux data; power densities above 5 W m⁻² at 6.2–11.8 bar and a 0.016 % maximum energy efficiency are computed for a hydro-turbine that 'can be harnessed'; no turbine run."},{"title":"Integration of desalination and energy conversion in a thermo-osmotic system using low-grade heat: Performance analysis and techno-economic evaluation","year":2023,"doi":"10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2023.120039","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/oa-mp12","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-straub-2016","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-straub-2017","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-xiao-2024"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"theory-only","reason":"No abstract accessible; Lai et al. 2025 describe it as a mathematical model of a 200,000 m² thermo-osmotic plant (2.15 MW net, 10.75 W m⁻²). Classified from the title and that description."},{"title":"Energetic and exergetic analyses of a closed-loop pressure retarded membrane distillation (PRMD) for low-grade thermal energy utilization and freshwater production","year":2022,"doi":"10.1016/j.desal.2022.115799","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-straub-2016","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-straub-2017","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-luo-2024","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-xiao-2024"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"theory-only","reason":"Energy and exergy analysis of PRMD designs (net electrical power density 1.91 W m⁻² for the new design per Lai et al. 2025's description); a model, not an experiment."},{"title":"Energetic and techno-economic analysis of harvesting energy from low-grade heat by thermo-osmotic energy conversion","year":2025,"doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.119949","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-straub-2016","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-straub-2017"],"access":"abstract","decision":"theory-only","reason":"Theoretical maximum power density and specific energy of TOEC with a techno-economic analysis (LCOE $0.66/kWh); no experiment."},{"title":"Thermoosmosis as Driving Mechanism for Micro- or Nanoscale Engine Driven by External Temperature Gradient","year":2015,"doi":"10.1021/acs.jpcc.5b08670","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/oa-dm1"],"access":"abstract","decision":"theory-only","reason":"A modelled nano-engine: circular thermo-osmotic flow in an annular cavity spins a rotor by hydrodynamic friction — a different second mechanism (viscous drag, not blade lift) and theory only."},{"title":"Thermal-energy conversion: Under pressure","year":2016,"doi":"10.1038/nenergy.2016.101","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/oa-dm1"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"review-only","reason":"News & Views on Straub et al. 2016; no new experiment."},{"title":"Simultaneous water and electricity harvesting from low-grade heat by coupling a membrane distiller and an electrokinetic power generator","year":2021,"doi":"10.1039/d1ta07530f","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-straub-2016","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-straub-2017","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-luo-2024","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-xiao-2024"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"sink-variant","reason":"The same driver and thermo-osmotic stage with an electrokinetic (streaming-potential) module consuming the pressurised flow in place of a turbine: electricity, not shaft work, is the sink. Evidence for the sibling route Temperature gradient → Thermo-osmosis → Fluid flow → Streaming potential → Ionic current → Electrical work, recorded as pathway:thermal-osmosis-electrokinetic-generator. Publisher abstract is one sentence; figures not recorded."},{"title":"Utilization of low-grade heat for desalination and electricity generation through thermal osmosis energy conversion process","year":2023,"doi":"10.1016/j.cej.2022.139560","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/oa-dm1","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-straub-2016","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-straub-2017","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-xiao-2024"],"access":"abstract","decision":"sink-variant","reason":"PTFE thermal-osmosis unit plus electrokinetic module: 18.46 kg m⁻² h⁻¹ and 1.12 W m⁻² simultaneously at ΔT = 50 °C; the authors state a turbine could not be sustained by their unit. Electricity via streaming potential is the sink; canonicalised on the sibling route (pathway:thermal-osmosis-electrokinetic-generator)."},{"title":"Simultaneous water production and electricity generation driven by synergistic temperature-salinity gradient in thermo-osmosis process","year":2023,"doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.121810","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/oa-dm1","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-straub-2016","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-straub-2017","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-xiao-2024"],"access":"abstract","decision":"sink-variant","reason":"Thermo-osmosis unit plus a reverse-electrodialysis module recovering the salinity gradient the process creates (+0.99 W m⁻²); the electrical sink is electrodialytic, no turbine."},{"title":"Synergistic utilization of low-grade heat and salinity gradient for water-electricity cogeneration through thermal osmosis and nanofluidic reverse electrodialysis","year":2025,"doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2025.120824","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/oa-dm1","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/oa-dm1-newest","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-straub-2016","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-straub-2017","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/cc-xiao-2024"],"access":"abstract","decision":"sink-variant","reason":"Laboratory prototype of thermo-osmosis plus nanofluidic reverse electrodialysis (2.27 W m⁻² at 3.5 wt % and 100 kPa); electrodialytic sink, no turbine."},{"title":"Low-grade heat powered hydrogen production from seawater based on thermal osmosis process","year":2025,"doi":"10.1016/j.ces.2025.122605","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/oa-dm1","search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/oa-dm1-newest"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"Thermal osmosis supplies pure water to a PEM electrolyser (3.79 kg m⁻² h⁻¹ at ΔT = 20 °C; 551 mL h⁻¹ H₂); the thermo-osmotic flow is a feedstock, not converted to work."},{"title":"Thermo‐Osmotic Energy Conversion Enabled by Covalent‐Organic‐Framework Membranes with Record Output Power Density","year":2022,"doi":"10.1002/anie.202116910","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-8fba925ce8/oa-dm1"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"Representative of the nanofluidic 'thermo-osmotic energy conversion' cluster on the list (COF, BN, ionogel and ionic-COF membranes; Chem. Rev. 2023 blue-energy review; Nano Lett. 2024; Small 2025–2026): a temperature difference drives selective ion transport through charged nanochannels and the output is ionic-thermoelectric electricity — no bulk flow, no turbine. Screened at title level."}],"result":"inconclusive","completeness":"partial","reviewed_by":"Ava Kim's loop-3 lane (Claude Opus 5), with ChatGPT (GPT-5 Thinking) as second reader of the screened list and of the qualification question; abstracts, Xiao 2024's full text and the citation-chase titles read by the lane","reviewed_on":"2026-09-21","limitations":["Semantic Scholar runs not made (anonymous API pool answered HTTP 429 throughout; key requested from the owner, exception e953) and the mandatory Google Scholar forms not run (one title lookup only, used to locate a readable copy of Xiao 2024); both are required for a negative","OpenAlex driver-mechanism query: 203 works reported after the VPDO/PRMD aliases were added, the first 100 by relevance and the first 50 newest screened at title level (protocol depth), the rest unscreened; the first run without those aliases (198 reported) had missed every PRMD paper","citation chase on OpenAlex's reference lists and citing works only (Straub 2016: 47 of 48 references, 313 citers; Straub 2017: 56, 112; Luo 2024: 32, 7; Xiao 2024: 41 of 42, 5), screened at title level with a turbine / hydro / power-generation vocabulary filter; no full-text chase","one plausible hit remains unread (Luo et al. 2024, Desalination 579:117485, paywalled) and could be a direct turbine run","the mechanism-pair, whole-chain and demonstration-precision queries returned 5, 1 and 0 works; the whole-chain hit is the 2017 theory paper","pass 49 (21/09 ~11:29 pm Sydney): every planned Semantic Scholar query was attempted once through the anonymous pool — 4 of 4 answered HTTP 429 at the first request (the runs above, each with its literal query, key and time); Google Scholar served its bot check at the first load of the driver-mechanism form (recorded as an attempt with nothing screened). Both engines are mandatory for a negative under route-search-v1, so the record stays partial and inconclusive: the outstanding obligations are the Semantic Scholar runs for every mandatory key and the Google Scholar runs to the protocol depth; OpenAlex's forms are complete. A blocked request is evidence that an engine was attempted, never that its query returned nothing."],"conclusion":"No physical experiment couples a turbine directly to a thermo-osmotic pressurised flow in the OpenAlex protocol runs or the four citation chases. The pressurised flow itself has been produced and its pressure × flux reported since 2014 (MemPower, Straub 2016, stack TOEC 2021, PRMD); the one hydro-turbine run (Xiao et al. 2024, a 2 W-rated bulb lit) stores the permeate in an elevated tank first and is recorded as longer-chain; the same driver and stage have been closed through electrokinetic and electrodialytic sinks instead (Huang 2021, Luo 2023, Ma 2025). Inconclusive until Luo 2024 is read and the Semantic Scholar and Google Scholar runs exist.","source_run_ids":["search:2026-09-20-p-8fba925ce8"],"follow_up":{"canonical_claim_review":"not-applicable","canonical_pathway_review":"not-applicable","candidate_source_ids":["source:xiao-2024-permeate-gap-thermo-osmotic","source:luo-2024-hollow-fibre-toec"]},"reviewed":true},{"id":"search:2026-09-21-p-231472e45e-partial","target":{"kind":"path","path":"p-231472e45e","claims":["claim:thermoacoustic-drives","claim:thermoacoustic-produces-travelling-sound","claim:acoustic-wave-drives-acoustoelectric","claim:acoustoelectric-produces","claim:charge-carriers-convert-electricity"]},"protocol_version":"route-search-v1","started_at":"2026-09-21T01:45:00+10:00","completed_at":"2026-09-21T02:10:00+10:00","objective":"exact-composition","composition_terms":[],"inclusion_criteria":["a physical experiment or device in which a thermoacoustic engine's travelling acoustic wave drags mobile carriers in a semiconductor (the Weinreich acoustoelectric effect) and the resulting current delivers electrical work to a load (route-search-v1 §3, output Electrical work)"],"exclusion_criteria":["theory, simulation or proposals (recorded as such, never as demonstrations)","piezoelectric or triboelectric conversion of thermoacoustic sound, even where the authors call it acoustoelectric (wrong-coupling: the atlas's acoustoelectric effect is Weinreich carrier drag)","acoustoelectric currents from an electrically launched wave (an RF-driven interdigitated transducer or plate) with no thermoacoustic source (constituent-only or source-variant)","thermoacoustic engines with no acoustoelectric element (constituent-only)"],"runs":[{"id":"search:2026-09-21-p-231472e45e/reviewer-web","engine":"manual","query_form":"route-demonstration-precision","query_key":"demonstration-precision","query":"second reader's web search (ChatGPT with browsing, pass 25): any experiment in which a thermoacoustic engine, Rijke tube or Sondhauss tube drove classical acoustoelectric carrier drag, or the nearest thing (a thermoacoustic engine driving a SAW device; an acoustoelectric current from a gas-borne wave)","executed_at":"2026-09-21T01:55:00+10:00","engine_version":null,"index_snapshot":null,"result_count_reported":null,"records_retrieved":5,"records_screened":5,"records_read":5},{"id":"search:2026-09-21-p-231472e45e/oa-dm1","engine":"openalex","query_form":"route-driver-mechanism","query_key":"driver-mechanism:1","query":"(\"Temperature gradient\" OR \"temperature difference\" OR \"thermal gradient\" OR \"ΔT\" OR \"waste heat\" OR \"heat input\") AND (thermoacoustic OR \"thermoacoustic effect\" OR \"thermoacoustic engine\" OR \"thermoacoustic prime mover\" OR \"thermoacoustic heat engine\" OR \"Rijke tube\" OR \"Sondhauss 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OR \"thermoacoustic heat engine\" OR \"Rijke tube\" OR \"Sondhauss tube\")","type":"article|review|book-chapter"},"result_count_reported":751,"records_retrieved":100,"records_screened":100,"records_read":3},{"id":"search:2026-09-21-p-231472e45e/oa-dm1-newest","engine":"openalex","query_form":"route-driver-mechanism","query_key":"driver-mechanism:1","query":"(\"Temperature gradient\" OR \"temperature difference\" OR \"thermal gradient\" OR \"ΔT\" OR \"waste heat\" OR \"heat input\") AND (thermoacoustic OR \"thermoacoustic effect\" OR \"thermoacoustic engine\" OR \"thermoacoustic prime mover\" OR \"thermoacoustic heat engine\" OR \"Rijke tube\" OR \"Sondhauss 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nanofibers","year":2022,"doi":"10.1016/j.nanoen.2022.106995","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-231472e45e/reviewer-web"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"Zheng et al. 2022 (Nano Energy): a mini thermoacoustic engine's sound converted to electricity in situ by a thermally stabilised PAN nanofibre membrane (102 V and 10 μA peak, 30 LEDs, a battery charged) — the thermoacoustic source is the route's, but the abstract names the mechanism piezoelectric conversion; the authors' 'acoustoelectric' is not Weinreich carrier drag. Recorded instead as the demonstrated pathway thermoacoustic-piezoelectric-harvester and kept here as the negative control for the alias set."},{"title":"Acoustoelectric Effect in n-Type Germanium","year":1959,"doi":"10.1103/PhysRev.114.33","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-231472e45e/reviewer-web"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"constituent-only","reason":"Weinreich, Sanders & White 1959: a travelling ultrasonic wave from an external transducer drags electrons in arsenic-doped n-type germanium — the downstream mechanism demonstrated and the Weinreich relation validated, with no thermoacoustic source (metadata on Crossref; the reviewer's summary of the experiment)."},{"title":"Observation of giant acoustoelectric currents in graphene on lead magnesium niobate–lead titanate","year":2026,"doi":"10.1038/s41467-026-74813-3","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-231472e45e/reviewer-web"],"access":"full-text","decision":"source-variant","reason":"Atashbar et al. 2026 (Nature Communications, open access): RF-driven interdigitated transducers on (111)-cut PMN–PT launch a surface acoustic wave through monolayer graphene; acoustoelectric current up to 90.39 μA and voltage 341.72 mV at 20 dBm with a 50 V gate (17 μA and 225 mV ungated). A travelling solid-state wave does yield substantial carrier-drag current when coupling and mobility are engineered, but the wave is launched electrically — the route's acoustoelectric stage with a different source."},{"title":"A thermoacoustic-Stirling heat engine: Detailed study","year":2000,"doi":"10.1121/1.429343","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-231472e45e/reviewer-web"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"constituent-only","reason":"Backhaus & Swift 2000: the travelling-wave (Stirling-cycle) thermoacoustic engine in detail — the driver, the first mechanism and the travelling acoustic carrier demonstrated, no acoustoelectric element."},{"title":"Traveling Wave Thermoacoustic Engine in a Looped Tube","year":1998,"doi":"10.1103/PhysRevLett.81.3128","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-231472e45e/reviewer-web"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"constituent-only","reason":"Yazaki, Iwata, Maekawa & Tominaga 1998: the first travelling-wave thermoacoustic engine (a looped tube) — the same role as Backhaus & Swift 2000, earlier."},{"title":"Wideband frequency-dependent dielectric properties of rat tissues exposed to low-intensity focused ultrasound in the microwave frequency range","year":2023,"doi":"10.1088/1674-1056/ac7453","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-231472e45e/oa-mp12"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"The mechanism-pair query's only hit (Chinese Physics B 32, 034305): the biomedical acoustoelectric effect — focused ultrasound modulating the conductivity and permittivity of rat tissues — with no thermoacoustic driver and no carrier drag; the query matched 'thermoacoustic imaging' and 'acoustoelectric' in one abstract."},{"title":"Energy harvesting from a standing wave thermoacoustic-piezoelectric resonator","year":2012,"doi":"10.1063/1.4712630","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-231472e45e/oa-dm1"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"Smoker, Nouh, Aldraihem & Baz 2012 (J. Appl. Phys. 111, 104901): a standing-wave thermoacoustic resonator whose pressure oscillation excites a piezoelectric diaphragm at the far end, validated on a small prototype with infrared, PIV and microphone measurements — the thermoacoustic source is the route's, the conversion is piezoelectric. The earlier demonstration of the atlas's thermoacoustic piezoelectric harvester; recorded there as evidence."},{"title":"Performance Enhancement of an Acoustic Energy Harvester with a Flexible Polyvinylidene Fluoride-Based Piezoelectric Nanogenerator via the Thermoacoustic Effect","year":2026,"doi":"10.3390/nano16140848","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-231472e45e/oa-dm1-newest"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"Liu & Chen 2026 (Nanomaterials 16, 848): a loudspeaker-driven acoustic harvester with a PVDF piezoelectric nanogenerator whose oscillation a thermoacoustic stack amplifies (pressure amplification up to 3.73 at a 101.5 °C stack temperature difference) — piezoelectric conversion, and the thermoacoustic effect here modifies an externally driven wave rather than sourcing it."},{"title":"Modelling and analysis of a thermoacoustic-piezoelectric energy harvester","year":2019,"doi":"10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2019.01.025","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-231472e45e/oa-dm1"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"Chen, Tang & Mace 2019 (Applied Thermal Engineering 150, 532–544): a model of the thermoacoustic-piezoelectric harvester; the piezoelectric family, by title."},{"title":"High-temperature energy harvesting via thermoacoustic-triboelectric hybridization: Design, modelling, and application demonstration","year":2026,"doi":"10.1016/j.nanoen.2026.112082","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-231472e45e/oa-dm1-newest"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"Li et al. 2026 (Nano Energy 155, 112082; abstract read on the publisher's page): a piston-assisted thermoacoustic engine drives a honeycomb-structured freestanding contact-separation triboelectric nanogenerator — stable oscillations at heating temperatures around 150 °C, a peak power of 0.49 mW at 80 MΩ, four stacked units charging 1 μF to 17.05 V in 10 s, a wireless temperature sensor powered. A third conversion family after the alternator and the piezoelectric membrane, not carrier drag; a sibling composition the atlas does not yet spell (with the 2025 liquid-metal triboelectric paper, Energy 137745, in the same list), put to the second reader."},{"title":"Development of a 5 kW traveling-wave thermoacoustic electric generator","year":2017,"doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.12.034","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-231472e45e/oa-dm1"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"constituent-only","reason":"Bi et al. 2017 (Applied Energy 185, 1355–1361): a 5 kW travelling-wave thermoacoustic engine with a linear alternator — the driver, the first mechanism and the travelling carrier at engineering scale, the atlas's recorded thermoacoustic generator; no acoustoelectric element."}],"result":"inconclusive","completeness":"partial","reviewed_by":"Ava Kim's loop-3 lane (Claude Opus 5); abstracts and Crossref metadata read by the lane; ChatGPT (GPT-5 Thinking) as second reader and web searcher in pass 25","reviewed_on":"2026-09-21","limitations":["OpenAlex ran on 21/09 at 10:07 am Sydney once the shared anonymous pool reopened (six forms; 751 works reported for the driver-mechanism form, the first 100 by relevance and the first 50 newest screened at title level, the rest unscreened; the mechanism-pair, whole-chain, precision and the reviewer's own precision query returned 1, 0, 0 and 0); Semantic Scholar still answers 429 keyless (owner exception e953) and Google Scholar still answers every query with a captcha — both mandatory for a negative, neither run","the driver-mechanism list is thermoacoustic-engine engineering (regenerators, looped tubes, alternators, piezoelectric and triboelectric converters); no title names carrier drag, a semiconductor or graphene","Weinreich, Sanders & White 1959 and the two travelling-wave engine papers were verified at metadata level only; their roles are constituent, so nothing about the composition rests on their full texts","pass 49 (21/09 ~11:29 pm Sydney): every planned Semantic Scholar query was attempted once through the anonymous pool — 3 of 4 answered HTTP 429 at the first request, 1 completed with an empty result list (the runs above, each with its literal query, key and time); Google Scholar served its bot check at the first load of the driver-mechanism form (recorded as an attempt with nothing screened). Both engines are mandatory for a negative under route-search-v1, so the record stays partial and inconclusive: the outstanding obligations are the Semantic Scholar runs for every mandatory key except demonstration-precision and the Google Scholar runs to the protocol depth; OpenAlex's forms are complete. A blocked request is evidence that an engine was attempted, never that its query returned nothing."],"conclusion":"No demonstration known: the second reader's web search found no experiment in which a thermoacoustic engine, Rijke tube or Sondhauss tube drove classical Weinreich carrier drag, and each of its five nearest works fails the composition for a stated reason — the thermoacoustic-to-electric device that exists (Zheng 2022) is piezoelectric, and the acoustoelectric currents that exist (Weinreich 1959, Atashbar 2026) come from electrically launched waves. The physics review changed the route's spelling: Weinreich drag needs a travelling wave, so the candidate is now the travelling-wave spelling (handoff token acoustic:travelling-wave) and the generic-sound spelling is incomplete-handoff. Both conversion steps now carry a constitutive relation (Swift's critical gradient; the Weinreich relation), so the route is the atlas's first bounded candidate; the second reader's order-of-magnitude estimate — of order 10⁻³ of a 700 W engine's acoustic power crossing a bare helium–germanium interface, nanoamp-to-microamp acoustoelectric currents, femtowatt-to-sub-picowatt matched-load power — lives in the pass log, not here. Inconclusive as a route search until the engine runs exist. OpenAlex (pass 27) adds nothing that qualifies: the mechanism-pair form's single hit is the biomedical acoustoelectric effect, the whole-chain and precision forms return nothing, and the driver-mechanism list is thermoacoustic-engine engineering whose electrical converters are alternators, piezoelectric membranes (Smoker 2012 the earliest) or triboelectric generators — never Weinreich drag. Scholar and Semantic Scholar remain outstanding.","source_run_ids":["search:2026-09-21-p-231472e45e"],"follow_up":{"canonical_claim_review":"completed","canonical_pathway_review":"completed","candidate_source_ids":["source:zheng-2022-thermoacoustic-pan","source:smoker-2012-thermoacoustic-piezoelectric"]},"reviewed":true},{"id":"search:2026-09-21-p-b820ec885f-partial","target":{"kind":"path","path":"p-b820ec885f","claims":["claim:temperature-drives-thermopolarization","claim:thermopolarization-produces-charge","claim:surface-charge-converts-electricity"]},"protocol_version":"route-search-v1","started_at":"2026-09-21T12:52:00+10:00","completed_at":"2026-09-21T12:56:00+10:00","objective":"exact-composition","composition_terms":[{"term":"thermopolarization","evidence":["source:kholkin-1982-thermopolarization-current","source:tagantsev-1987-thermal-polarization","source:trepakov-1989-proper-thermopolarization","source:onishi-2025-thermopolarization"]}],"inclusion_criteria":["a physical experiment in which a dielectric's direct thermopolarization under an imposed temperature gradient delivers electrical work to a load — a resistor, a capacitor charged, a device powered — or reports output power (route-search-v1 §3, output Electrical work)"],"exclusion_criteria":["theory and simulation of the thermopolarization tensor or of thermally polarised liquids (theory-only / simulation-only)","measurements of the polarization or its current with no load (sink-variant — the observation the claims already rest on)","the converse effect (a temperature difference from a field change), thermal-expansion → flexoelectric chains (the route p-a093d7ecc5), pyroelectric and thermoelectric responses (wrong-coupling)"],"runs":[{"id":"search:2026-09-21-p-b820ec885f/oa-dm1","engine":"openalex","query_form":"route-driver-mechanism","query_key":"driver-mechanism:1","query":"(\"Temperature gradient\" OR \"temperature difference\" OR \"thermal gradient\" OR \"ΔT\" OR \"waste heat\") AND (\"Thermopolarization effect\" OR thermopolarization OR \"thermal polarization effect\" OR \"proper thermopolarization\" OR \"temperature-gradient-induced polarization\")","executed_at":"2026-09-21T02:53:12.754Z","request_url":"https://api.openalex.org/works?filter=title_and_abstract.search%3A%28%22Temperature+gradient%22+OR+%22temperature+difference%22+OR+%22thermal+gradient%22+OR+%22%CE%94T%22+OR+%22waste+heat%22%29+AND+%28%22Thermopolarization+effect%22+OR+thermopolarization+OR+%22thermal+polarization+effect%22+OR+%22proper+thermopolarization%22+OR+%22temperature-gradient-induced+polarization%22%29%2Ctype%3Aarticle%7Creview%7Cbook-chapter&per-page=100&sort=relevance_score%3Adesc&select=id%2Ctitle%2Cpublication_year%2Cdoi%2Ctype%2Ccited_by_count%2Copen_access","engine_version":null,"index_snapshot":null,"sort":"relevance_score:desc","filters":{"title_and_abstract.search":"(\"Temperature gradient\" OR \"temperature difference\" OR \"thermal gradient\" OR \"ΔT\" OR \"waste heat\") AND (\"Thermopolarization effect\" OR thermopolarization OR \"thermal polarization effect\" OR \"proper thermopolarization\" OR \"temperature-gradient-induced polarization\")","type":"article|review|book-chapter"},"result_count_reported":17,"records_retrieved":17,"records_screened":17,"records_read":3},{"id":"search:2026-09-21-p-b820ec885f/oa-dm1-newest","engine":"openalex","query_form":"route-driver-mechanism","query_key":"driver-mechanism:1","query":"(\"Temperature gradient\" OR \"temperature difference\" OR \"thermal gradient\" OR \"ΔT\" OR \"waste heat\") AND (\"Thermopolarization effect\" OR thermopolarization OR \"thermal polarization effect\" OR \"proper thermopolarization\" OR \"temperature-gradient-induced polarization\")","executed_at":"2026-09-21T02:53:18.101Z","request_url":"https://api.openalex.org/works?filter=title_and_abstract.search%3A%28%22Temperature+gradient%22+OR+%22temperature+difference%22+OR+%22thermal+gradient%22+OR+%22%CE%94T%22+OR+%22waste+heat%22%29+AND+%28%22Thermopolarization+effect%22+OR+thermopolarization+OR+%22thermal+polarization+effect%22+OR+%22proper+thermopolarization%22+OR+%22temperature-gradient-induced+polarization%22%29%2Ctype%3Aarticle%7Creview%7Cbook-chapter&per-page=50&sort=publication_date%3Adesc&select=id%2Ctitle%2Cpublication_year%2Cdoi%2Ctype%2Ccited_by_count%2Copen_access","engine_version":null,"index_snapshot":null,"sort":"publication_date:desc","filters":{"title_and_abstract.search":"(\"Temperature gradient\" OR \"temperature difference\" OR \"thermal gradient\" OR \"ΔT\" OR \"waste heat\") AND (\"Thermopolarization effect\" OR thermopolarization OR \"thermal polarization effect\" OR \"proper thermopolarization\" OR \"temperature-gradient-induced polarization\")","type":"article|review|book-chapter"},"result_count_reported":17,"records_retrieved":17,"records_screened":17,"records_read":0},{"id":"search:2026-09-21-p-b820ec885f/oa-wc","engine":"openalex","query_form":"route-whole-chain","query_key":"whole-chain","query":"(\"Temperature gradient\" OR \"temperature difference\" OR \"thermal gradient\" OR \"ΔT\" OR \"waste heat\") AND (\"Thermopolarization effect\" OR thermopolarization OR \"thermal polarization effect\" OR \"proper thermopolarization\" OR \"temperature-gradient-induced polarization\") AND (\"Electrical work\" OR electricity OR \"electrical output\" OR \"output power\" OR \"power density\" OR \"load resistance\" OR \"resistive load\" OR harvesting OR \"energy harvesting\" OR generator)","executed_at":"2026-09-21T02:53:22.556Z","request_url":"https://api.openalex.org/works?filter=title_and_abstract.search%3A%28%22Temperature+gradient%22+OR+%22temperature+difference%22+OR+%22thermal+gradient%22+OR+%22%CE%94T%22+OR+%22waste+heat%22%29+AND+%28%22Thermopolarization+effect%22+OR+thermopolarization+OR+%22thermal+polarization+effect%22+OR+%22proper+thermopolarization%22+OR+%22temperature-gradient-induced+polarization%22%29+AND+%28%22Electrical+work%22+OR+electricity+OR+%22electrical+output%22+OR+%22output+power%22+OR+%22power+density%22+OR+%22load+resistance%22+OR+%22resistive+load%22+OR+harvesting+OR+%22energy+harvesting%22+OR+generator%29%2Ctype%3Aarticle%7Creview%7Cbook-chapter&per-page=100&sort=relevance_score%3Adesc&select=id%2Ctitle%2Cpublication_year%2Cdoi%2Ctype%2Ccited_by_count%2Copen_access","engine_version":null,"index_snapshot":null,"sort":"relevance_score:desc","filters":{"title_and_abstract.search":"(\"Temperature gradient\" OR \"temperature difference\" OR \"thermal gradient\" OR \"ΔT\" OR \"waste heat\") AND (\"Thermopolarization effect\" OR thermopolarization OR \"thermal polarization effect\" OR \"proper thermopolarization\" OR \"temperature-gradient-induced polarization\") AND (\"Electrical work\" OR electricity OR \"electrical output\" OR \"output power\" OR \"power density\" OR \"load resistance\" OR \"resistive load\" OR harvesting OR \"energy harvesting\" OR generator)","type":"article|review|book-chapter"},"result_count_reported":0,"records_retrieved":0,"records_screened":0,"records_read":0},{"id":"search:2026-09-21-p-b820ec885f/oa-dp","engine":"openalex","query_form":"route-demonstration-precision","query_key":"demonstration-precision","query":"(\"Temperature gradient\" OR \"temperature difference\" OR \"thermal gradient\" OR \"ΔT\" OR \"waste heat\") AND (\"Thermopolarization effect\" OR thermopolarization OR \"thermal polarization effect\" OR \"proper thermopolarization\" OR \"temperature-gradient-induced polarization\") AND (\"Electrical work\" OR electricity OR \"electrical output\" OR \"output power\" OR \"power density\" OR \"load resistance\" OR \"resistive load\" OR harvesting OR \"energy harvesting\" OR generator) AND (experiment OR experimental OR measured OR device OR prototype)","executed_at":"2026-09-21T02:53:27.751Z","request_url":"https://api.openalex.org/works?filter=title_and_abstract.search%3A%28%22Temperature+gradient%22+OR+%22temperature+difference%22+OR+%22thermal+gradient%22+OR+%22%CE%94T%22+OR+%22waste+heat%22%29+AND+%28%22Thermopolarization+effect%22+OR+thermopolarization+OR+%22thermal+polarization+effect%22+OR+%22proper+thermopolarization%22+OR+%22temperature-gradient-induced+polarization%22%29+AND+%28%22Electrical+work%22+OR+electricity+OR+%22electrical+output%22+OR+%22output+power%22+OR+%22power+density%22+OR+%22load+resistance%22+OR+%22resistive+load%22+OR+harvesting+OR+%22energy+harvesting%22+OR+generator%29+AND+%28experiment+OR+experimental+OR+measured+OR+device+OR+prototype%29%2Ctype%3Aarticle%7Creview%7Cbook-chapter&per-page=100&sort=relevance_score%3Adesc&select=id%2Ctitle%2Cpublication_year%2Cdoi%2Ctype%2Ccited_by_count%2Copen_access","engine_version":null,"index_snapshot":null,"sort":"relevance_score:desc","filters":{"title_and_abstract.search":"(\"Temperature gradient\" OR \"temperature difference\" OR \"thermal gradient\" OR \"ΔT\" OR \"waste heat\") AND (\"Thermopolarization effect\" OR thermopolarization OR \"thermal polarization effect\" OR \"proper thermopolarization\" OR \"temperature-gradient-induced polarization\") AND (\"Electrical work\" OR electricity OR \"electrical output\" OR \"output power\" OR \"power density\" OR \"load resistance\" OR \"resistive load\" OR harvesting OR \"energy harvesting\" OR generator) AND (experiment OR experimental OR measured OR device OR prototype)","type":"article|review|book-chapter"},"result_count_reported":0,"records_retrieved":0,"records_screened":0,"records_read":0},{"id":"search:2026-09-21-p-b820ec885f/oa-dp-r","engine":"openalex","query_form":"route-demonstration-precision","query_key":"demonstration-precision","query":"thermopolarization AND (\"output power\" OR \"power density\" OR \"load resistance\" OR \"resistive load\" OR harvesting OR generator) AND (experiment OR experimental OR measured OR device)","executed_at":"2026-09-21T02:53:32.297Z","request_url":"https://api.openalex.org/works?filter=title_and_abstract.search%3Athermopolarization+AND+%28%22output+power%22+OR+%22power+density%22+OR+%22load+resistance%22+OR+%22resistive+load%22+OR+harvesting+OR+generator%29+AND+%28experiment+OR+experimental+OR+measured+OR+device%29%2Ctype%3Aarticle%7Creview%7Cbook-chapter&per-page=100&sort=relevance_score%3Adesc&select=id%2Ctitle%2Cpublication_year%2Cdoi%2Ctype%2Ccited_by_count%2Copen_access","engine_version":null,"index_snapshot":null,"sort":"relevance_score:desc","filters":{"title_and_abstract.search":"thermopolarization AND (\"output power\" OR \"power density\" OR \"load resistance\" OR \"resistive load\" OR harvesting OR generator) AND (experiment OR experimental OR measured OR 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of Vibration Energy Harvesting Performance of Thermo-Electro-Elastic Microscale Devices Based on Generalized Thermoelasticity","year":2024,"doi":"10.3390/act13120533","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-b820ec885f/oa-dp-r"],"access":"abstract","decision":"simulation-only","reason":"He et al. 2024 (Actuators 13, 533): a generalized-thermoelastic model of a piezoelectric microbeam vibration harvester that includes a thermopolarization term — the reviewer's precision query's only relevant hit, a model of a vibration-driven piezoelectric device, not a thermopolarization generator."},{"title":"Effects of thermally induced birefringence in high-output-power electro-optically Q-switched Nd:YAG lasers and their compensation","year":1993,"doi":"10.1364/ao.32.000278","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-b820ec885f/oa-dp-r"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"Applied Optics 1993: a laser paper matched on 'output power' and 'thermally induced'; not the composition."},{"title":"Laser Intensity Modulation Method and Thermal Gradient Induced Polarization","year":1997,"doi":"10.1002/1521-396x(199709)163:1<263::aid-pssa263>3.0.co;2-t","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-b820ec885f/oa-dm1"],"access":"abstract","decision":"theory-only","reason":"Marvan & Fähnrich 1997 (phys. stat. sol. (a) 163, 263–270; abstract read on OpenAlex in the pass-32 review): the contribution of the thermopolarization effect (P ∝ ∇T) to the laser-intensity-modulation-method signal studied theoretically, shown large enough to observe, and compared with the pyroelectric signal — a prediction of a measurement method, not an experiment in polymer films; ruled insufficient-information on the title alone before the abstract was found."},{"title":"The rich phase behavior of the thermopolarization of water: from a reversal in the polarization, to enhancement near criticality conditions","year":2016,"doi":"10.1039/c6cp03082c","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-b820ec885f/oa-dm1"],"access":"abstract","decision":"simulation-only","reason":"Iriarte-Carretero et al. 2016 (PCCP 18, 19894): non-equilibrium molecular dynamics of water polarised by a thermal gradient, strongly dependent on the thermodynamic state with an enhancement near the critical point — a sibling in polar liquids (with the 2013 water, 2020 acetonitrile, 2024 supercooled-water and 2025 ethanol simulations on the same list), all simulation, no experiment, no load."},{"title":"Thermo-electro-elastic analysis of piezoelectric hollow cylinder with thermopolarization effect","year":2024,"doi":"10.1080/01495739.2023.2293046","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-b820ec885f/oa-dm1"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"theory-only","reason":"Journal of Thermal Stresses 2024 (with the 2024 flexoelectric hollow-cylinder analysis on the same list): continuum analyses that include the thermopolarization coefficient, by title — theory."},{"title":"Reverse thermopolarization effects in dielectrics","year":1995,"doi":"10.1080/07315179508204274","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-b820ec885f/oa-dm1"],"access":"abstract","decision":"wrong-coupling","reason":"Trepakov et al. 1995: the converse effect (a ≈ 10⁻⁴ K temperature difference across a PMN capacitor charged at 10⁶ V/m), recorded under p-a093d7ecc5 as well."},{"title":"Theory of Thermopolarization Effect","year":2025,"doi":"10.1021/acs.nanolett.4c05870","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-b820ec885f/oa-dm1"],"access":"abstract","decision":"theory-only","reason":"Onishi, Isobe, Shitade & Nagaosa 2025 (Nano Letters 25, 2763): the modern linear-response theory of the direct effect; no experiment."},{"title":"Antisymmetric thermopolarization by electric toroidicity","year":2022,"doi":"10.1103/physrevb.105.245125","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-b820ec885f/oa-dm1"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"theory-only","reason":"Nasu & Hayami 2022 (Phys. Rev. B 105, 245125): theory of the tensor's antisymmetric part."}],"result":"inconclusive","completeness":"partial","reviewed_by":"Ava Kim's loop-3 lane (Claude Opus 5); titles screened, six abstracts read on Crossref and OpenAlex","reviewed_on":"2026-09-21","limitations":["OpenAlex only (21/09, 12:53 pm Sydney): driver-mechanism 17 works (all screened, the thermopolarization theory and the thermally polarised-liquid simulations); whole-chain 0; demonstration-precision 0; the reviewer's precision query 2 (both false positives); the composite-name form 43 works, every one already in the flexoelectric route's composite-name bundle (screened there in pass 27 and here again at title level); Semantic Scholar answers 429 keyless (owner exception e953) and Google Scholar a captcha — both mandatory for a negative, neither run","the constituent observations (Kholkin 1982, read in full; Trepakov 1989 and Rafikov 1994 at abstract level) are sink-variant by construction — a polarization current with no load — and are not repeated as hits here; the claims stay reported until Trepakov 1989 is read (owner exception e9d8)","Marvan & Fähnrich 1997, the one title that might have reported an experiment, is theory by its abstract (found after the record was first written); no hit on the list is an experiment"],"conclusion":"None found in the runs made (a partial, never a protocol-complete negative): nothing OpenAlex returns puts a load on a thermopolarised dielectric or reports output power from the direct effect. The literature that names the composition is the 1982–1994 measurement lineage (currents, no load), its theory (Marvan 1969, Tagantsev 1987 and 1991, Marvan & Fähnrich 1997, Nasu 2022, Onishi 2025), its converse (1995), and a separate simulation literature on the thermal polarization of polar liquids (Bresme and co-workers, 2008–2025), spelled since pass 32 as a second, theoretically-predicted claim into the same phenomenon. Inconclusive as a route search until the Scholar and Semantic Scholar runs exist.","source_run_ids":["search:2026-09-21-p-b820ec885f"],"follow_up":{"canonical_claim_review":"not-applicable","canonical_pathway_review":"not-applicable","candidate_source_ids":[]},"reviewed":true},{"id":"search:2026-09-21-p-4d6800fa81-partial","target":{"kind":"path","path":"p-4d6800fa81","claims":["claim:vibration-drives-elastic","claim:elastic-produces-stress","claim:elastocaloric-drives","claim:elastocaloric-converts-cooling"]},"protocol_version":"route-search-v1","started_at":"2026-09-21T11:13:00+10:00","completed_at":"2026-09-21T11:25:00+10:00","objective":"exact-composition","composition_terms":[],"inclusion_criteria":["a physical experiment or device in which ambient or base vibration (not a designed actuator, test machine or motor) elastically strains an elastocaloric element and a measured temperature drop or heat pumped is delivered (route-search-v1 §3, output Cooling)"],"exclusion_criteria":["theory, simulation or proposals (recorded as such, never as demonstrations) — the Kumar 2019 finite-element cooler among them","elastocaloric materials or devices loaded by a test machine, actuator, motor or hand (constituent-only or wrong-driver)","vibration harvesters with piezoelectric, electrocaloric or thermoelectric conversion (wrong-coupling)"],"runs":[{"id":"search:2026-09-21-p-4d6800fa81/oa-dm1","engine":"openalex","query_form":"route-driver-mechanism","query_key":"driver-mechanism:1","query":"(\"Mechanical vibration\" OR oscillation OR \"ambient vibration\" OR \"kinetic motion\" OR \"vibration-driven\" OR \"base excitation\") AND (\"Elastic deformation\" OR \"Hooke's law response\" OR \"strain energy 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mechanocaloric)","executed_at":"2026-09-21T01:14:57.368Z","request_url":"https://api.openalex.org/works?filter=title_and_abstract.search%3A%28%22Elastic+deformation%22+OR+%22Hooke%27s+law+response%22+OR+%22strain+energy+storage%22%29+AND+%28%22Elastocaloric+effect%22+OR+%22mechanocaloric+effect%22+OR+%22stress-induced+caloric+effect%22+OR+%22elastocaloric+cooling%22+OR+elastocaloric+OR+mechanocaloric%29%2Ctype%3Aarticle%7Creview%7Cbook-chapter&per-page=100&sort=relevance_score%3Adesc&select=id%2Ctitle%2Cpublication_year%2Cdoi%2Ctype%2Ccited_by_count%2Copen_access","engine_version":null,"index_snapshot":null,"sort":"relevance_score:desc","filters":{"title_and_abstract.search":"(\"Elastic deformation\" OR \"Hooke's law response\" OR \"strain energy storage\") AND (\"Elastocaloric effect\" OR \"mechanocaloric effect\" OR \"stress-induced caloric effect\" OR \"elastocaloric cooling\" OR elastocaloric OR 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materials","year":2019,"doi":"10.1038/s41598-019-40159-8","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-4d6800fa81/oa-dp-r"],"access":"abstract","decision":"proposal-only","reason":"Kumar, Chauhan, Patel, Novak, Kumar & Vaish 2019 (Scientific Reports 9, 3922): the reviewer's precision query returns the atlas's own proposed pathway — a cantilever cooling device with off-axis 0.5BZT–0.5BCT patches strained elastocalorically by ambient vibration, 0.2 K in 50 s for ten elements at 1.5 Hz by finite-element analysis; a proposal with a model, no built device (recorded on pathway:vibration-elastocaloric-cooler, K3)."},{"title":"A cryogenic uniaxial strain cell for strain-dependent measurements","year":2025,"doi":"10.1063/5.0291096","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-4d6800fa81/oa-dp-r"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"wrong-driver","reason":"Review of Scientific Instruments 2025: a piezo-actuated uniaxial strain cell for cryogenic measurements, by title — a designed actuator for strain-dependent physics, not vibration and not cooling."},{"title":"Reversible elastocaloric effect at ultra-low temperatures in nanocrystalline shape memory alloys","year":2018,"doi":"10.1016/j.actamat.2018.11.035","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-4d6800fa81/oa-mp12"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"constituent-only","reason":"Acta Materialia 2018: the elastocaloric effect of nanocrystalline shape-memory alloys under test-machine loading, by title — the second mechanism alone."},{"title":"Giant elastic response and ultra-stable elastocaloric effect in tweed textured Fe-Pd single crystals","year":2021,"doi":"10.1016/j.actamat.2021.117486","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-4d6800fa81/oa-mp12"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"constituent-only","reason":"Acta Materialia 2021: Fe–Pd single crystals' elastic response and elastocaloric effect under imposed strain, by title — the second mechanism alone."},{"title":"Cyclic degeneration of elastocaloric effect for NiTi shape memory alloy: Experimental observation and constitutive model","year":2022,"doi":"10.1016/j.ijsolstr.2022.111638","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-4d6800fa81/oa-mp12"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"constituent-only","reason":"Int. J. Solids Struct. 2022: NiTi's elastocaloric effect under cyclic test-machine loading, by title — the second mechanism alone."},{"title":"Temperature-dependent mechanical properties and elastocaloric effects of multiphase nanocrystalline NiTi alloys","year":2022,"doi":"10.1016/j.jallcom.2022.168547","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-4d6800fa81/oa-mp12"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"constituent-only","reason":"J. Alloys Compd. 2022: NiTi mechanical properties and elastocaloric effects under imposed loading, by title — the second mechanism alone."},{"title":"Role of thermal expansion anisotropy on the elastocaloric effect of shape memory alloys with slim-hysteresis superelasticity","year":2023,"doi":"10.1103/physrevmaterials.7.013606","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-4d6800fa81/oa-mp12"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"constituent-only","reason":"Phys. Rev. Materials 2023: how thermal-expansion anisotropy shapes the elastocaloric effect of slim-hysteresis alloys, by title — the second mechanism alone."},{"title":"Elastocaloric Effect Associated with Different Types of Martensitic Transformations: Typical First-Order and Weak First-Order Ones","year":2017,"doi":"10.1002/pssb.201700246","found_by":["search:2026-09-21-p-4d6800fa81/oa-mp12"],"access":"metadata-only","decision":"constituent-only","reason":"phys. stat. sol. (b) 2017: elastocaloric effects of first-order and weak first-order martensitic transformations, by title — the second mechanism alone."}],"result":"inconclusive","completeness":"partial","reviewed_by":"Ava Kim's loop-3 lane (Claude Opus 5); titles screened, the precision hit matched to the atlas's recorded proposal","reviewed_on":"2026-09-21","limitations":["OpenAlex only (21/09, 11:15 am Sydney): driver-mechanism 364 works reported, the first 100 by relevance and the first 50 newest screened at title level (protocol depth), the rest unscreened — generic elastic-deformation mechanics with no elastocaloric element; mechanism-pair 6 (elastocaloric materials under test-machine loading); whole-chain 0; demonstration-precision 0; the reviewer's precision query 2, one of them the recorded Kumar 2019 proposal; Semantic Scholar answers 429 keyless (owner exception e953) and Google Scholar a captcha — both mandatory for a negative, neither run","no composition term is frozen; if the literature names a \"vibration-driven elastocaloric cooler\" as a device the composite-name form becomes mandatory once the term is added with its source","pass 49 (21/09 ~11:29 pm Sydney): every planned Semantic Scholar query was attempted once through the anonymous pool — 4 of 4 answered HTTP 429 at the first request (the runs above, each with its literal query, key and time); Google Scholar served its bot check at the first load of the driver-mechanism form (recorded as an attempt with nothing screened). Both engines are mandatory for a negative under route-search-v1, so the record stays partial and inconclusive: the outstanding obligations are the Semantic Scholar runs for every mandatory key and the Google Scholar runs to the protocol depth; OpenAlex's forms are complete. A blocked request is evidence that an engine was attempted, never that its query returned nothing."],"conclusion":"No demonstration known and none found: the only work that joins ambient vibration to elastocaloric cooling is the Kumar 2019 finite-element proposal the atlas already records as a proposed pathway; every elastocaloric experiment the forms return is loaded by a test machine or a designed actuator. Inconclusive as a route search until the Scholar and Semantic Scholar runs exist.","source_run_ids":["search:2026-09-21-p-4d6800fa81"],"follow_up":{"canonical_claim_review":"not-applicable","canonical_pathway_review":"not-applicable","candidate_source_ids":[]},"reviewed":true}],"interfaces":[{"id":"interface:thermoacoustic-piezoelectric-gas-solid","location":{"between_claims":{"from_claim":"claim:thermoacoustic-produces-sound","to_claim":"claim:acoustic-wave-drives-piezoelectric"}},"kind":"gas-solid-acoustic-boundary","from_region":"resonator-gas","to_region":"piezoelectric-element","carrier":"carrier:acoustic-wave","handoff_token":null,"relation":null,"conditions":["the resonator pressure field directly loads a solid piezoelectric membrane or diaphragm; no active intermediate acoustic transducer is required"],"condition_requirements":[],"evidence":["source:zheng-2022-thermoacoustic-pan","source:smoker-2012-thermoacoustic-piezoelectric"],"status":"demonstrated","notes":"Two geometries of one physical handoff: Zheng et al. 2022 drove a thermally stabilised PAN membrane in a mini engine's sound field (102 V / 10 μA peak); Smoker et al. 2012 placed a piezoelectric diaphragm at the opposite end of a standing-wave resonator and compared the integrated device with theory. Neither reports an incident-to-transmitted acoustic intensity coefficient. Renamed in pass 27 from interface:thermoacoustic-pan-membrane once the evidence covered both.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 27 (renamed and widened to Smoker 2012 on the second reader's ruling; pass 26 wrote the PAN record)"}},{"id":"interface:thermoacoustic-triboelectric-piston","location":{"between_claims":{"from_claim":"claim:thermoacoustic-produces-sound","to_claim":"claim:acoustic-wave-drives-triboelectric"}},"kind":"gas-solid-acoustic-boundary","from_region":"resonator-gas","to_region":"triboelectric-actuator","carrier":"carrier:acoustic-wave","handoff_token":null,"relation":null,"conditions":["thermoacoustic pressure oscillations mechanically drive the piston / contact-separation assembly without an intervening electrical transducer"],"condition_requirements":[],"evidence":["source:li-2026-thermoacoustic-teng"],"status":"demonstrated","notes":"The piston is apparatus at this boundary and adds no conversion phenomenon to the route. Ahmed et al. 2025 (a mercury–Kapton sliding TENG on a thermoacoustic engine, 18.8 V / 3.2 μA per layer) shows the family does not require a solid piston, but its gas–liquid–solid boundary is physically different and is not folded into this record.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 27 (the second reader's fourth interface record; abstract read)"}},{"id":"interface:mhd-plasma-electrodes","location":{"within_claim":"claim:mhd-produces"},"kind":"electrode-contact","from_region":"plasma-channel","to_region":"electrode","carrier":"carrier:charge-carriers","handoff_token":null,"relation":null,"conditions":["the conducting plasma crosses the magnetic field in the generator channel; the induced current is collected at solid electrodes into the external circuit","the solid electrode is a boundary of the plasma channel, not the active medium of the MHD effect"],"condition_requirements":[],"evidence":["source:rosa-1961-mhd"],"status":"demonstrated","notes":"Rosa's experimental MHD work (Physics of Fluids 4, 182–194, 1961: an experimental 10 kW generator) used a conducting high-temperature gas and electrodes; the electrode boundary must not make the plasma conversion step inherit state-solid.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 26 (the second reader's second interface record; the false gas–solid conflict was removed by the carrier fix, this record names the real boundary)"}},{"id":"interface:thermoacoustic-acoustoelectric-gas-solid","location":{"between_claims":{"from_claim":"claim:thermoacoustic-produces-travelling-sound","to_claim":"claim:acoustic-wave-drives-acoustoelectric"}},"kind":"gas-solid-acoustic-boundary","from_region":"resonator-gas","to_region":"acoustoelectric-solid","carrier":"carrier:acoustic-wave","handoff_token":"acoustic:travelling-wave","relation":{"formula":"I₂ = T_I I₁; T_I = 4 Z₁ Z₂ / (Z₁ + Z₂)^2","input":"quantity:acoustic-intensity","output":"quantity:acoustic-intensity","coefficient_unit":"1","coefficient_name":"normal-incidence acoustic intensity transmission coefficient T_I","conventions":"ideal plane boundary at normal incidence; Z₁ and Z₂ are the characteristic acoustic impedances of the gas and the solid; matching layers, finite geometry and dissipative losses neglected"},"conditions":["the travelling gas-borne acoustic wave mechanically loads the acoustoelectric solid directly; an electrically driven piezoelectric or IDT launcher would instead create a longer-chain implementation"],"condition_requirements":[],"evidence":["source:zheng-2022-thermoacoustic-pan"],"status":"theoretical","notes":"Zheng 2022 physically demonstrates direct thermoacoustic gas-wave coupling into a solid piezoelectric membrane, establishing that an active intermediate launcher is not required. No experiment is recorded in which this boundary directly drives a Weinreich-type semiconductor; the ideal transmission relation is a model for the candidate interface, not a measured datum — for 30-bar helium (Z ≈ 4.9 × 10³ Pa·s/m) on germanium (≈ 2.9 × 10⁷ Pa·s/m) it gives T_I ≈ 7 × 10⁻⁴, an illustration only.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":"2026-09-21","reviewer":"loop-3 pass 26 (the second reader's third interface record; the candidate's gas–solid transition named and modelled, not measured)"}}],"systems":[{"id":"system-pathway:natural-gas-combined-cycle","name":"Natural-gas combined-cycle plant","members":[{"id":"topping","pathway":"pathway:combustion-gas-turbine","role":"topping-cycle","pathway_name":"Combustion gas-turbine plant","pathway_status":"commercial","route_id":"p-62674bc82d","route_checks":{"type-chain":"pass","energy-form-continuity":"pass","conservation":"pass","thermodynamic-bound":"unresolved","dimensional":"unknown","boundary-compatibility":"pass","driver-regime-sufficiency":"pass","practical-magnitude":"pass"},"core_unresolved_count":1},{"id":"bottoming","pathway":"pathway:rankine-steam-plant","role":"bottoming-cycle","pathway_name":"Steam Rankine plant","pathway_status":"commercial","route_id":"p-9f97be27de","route_checks":{"type-chain":"pass","energy-form-continuity":"pass","conservation":"pass","thermodynamic-bound":"unresolved","dimensional":"unknown","boundary-compatibility":"pass","driver-regime-sufficiency":"pass","practical-magnitude":"pass"},"core_unresolved_count":1}],"handoffs":[{"from_member":"topping","to_member":"bottoming","from_energy_form":"thermal","to_source":"disequilibrium:temperature-gradient","carrier":"carrier:hot-gas","through":null,"kind":"recovered-heat","conditions":["gas-turbine exhaust transfers residual enthalpy through a heat-recovery steam generator to establish the bottoming steam-cycle hot-side temperature relative to its condenser"],"evidence":["source:al-mhanna-2024-isccs"],"status":"demonstrated","note":"Al Mhanna 2024's local plant: 540.7 °C gas-turbine exhaust into two-pressure heat-recovery steam generators (HP 235,400 kg/h and LP 40,000 kg/h feed; HP superheater exhaust 471.48 °C), the steam turbine delivering 61.5 MW"}],"outputs":[{"member":"topping","output":"output:electricity","aggregation":"sum"},{"member":"bottoming","output":"output:electricity","aggregation":"sum"}],"evidence":["source:al-mhanna-2024-isccs","source:bejan-2016"],"status":"commercial","knowledge_level":"K8","performance":{"measurements":[{"quantity":"combined-cycle thermal efficiency","value":"46.93%","value_numeric":0.4693,"unit":"1","metric":"conversion-efficiency","basis":"net gas-turbine plus steam-turbine power divided by natural-gas LHV input","scope":"plant","conditions":"local plant baseline (a 678 MW combined-cycle station in Oman, one gas-turbine train); natural gas 9.2 kg/s at LHV 43,662 kJ/kg; gas turbine ≈ 127 MW, steam turbine ≈ 61.5 MW; gas-turbine inlet 1050 °C, exhaust 540.7 °C","sources":["source:al-mhanna-2024-isccs"],"year":2024,"note":"the plant's own figure (Table 3, local plant data); (127 + 61.5) MW over 9.2 kg/s × 43,662 kJ/kg = 401.7 MW reproduces it exactly — a verification, not a second measurement; the paper's Aspen Plus simulation gives 46.28 %"}]},"summary":"A topping gas turbine delivers electrical work and hands its exhaust enthalpy through heat-recovery steam generators to a bottoming steam Rankine cycle that delivers more; the two generators' outputs add. 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