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Iovieno"],"year":2020,"venue":"Applied Energy 277, 115591","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115591","notes":"Lab-scale closed-loop toroidal thermomagnetic hydrodynamic harvester: a commercial ferrofluid advects under permanent magnets and Peltier-controlled gradients; induction coils wrapped on the torus extract up to 10.4 μW per kelvin of temperature difference (abstract).","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/chiolerio-2020-thermomagnetic-harvester"},{"id":"source:zhou-2009-thermomagnetic-engine","type":"paper","title":"A new miniaturized engine based on thermomagnetic effect of magnetic fluids","authors":["L. Zhou","Y. Xuan","Q. Li","W. Lian"],"year":2009,"venue":"Frontiers of Energy and Power Engineering in China 3, 160–166","doi":"10.1007/s11708-009-0018-9","notes":"A permanent NdFeB magnet, a kerosene-based temperature-sensitive magnetic fluid and a rotor: the rotor is driven by the thermomagnetic convection of the fluid in the field; peak angular velocity about 2.1 rad/min, rising with heat input and falling heat-sink temperature (abstract).","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/zhou-2009-thermomagnetic-engine"},{"id":"source:yalamarthy-2019-phonon-drag","type":"paper","title":"Significant Phonon Drag Enables High Power Factor in the AlGaN/GaN Two-Dimensional Electron Gas","authors":["A. S. Yalamarthy","M. Muñoz Rojo","A. Bruefach","D. Boone","K. M. Dowling","P. F. Satterthwaite","D. Goldhaber-Gordon","E. Pop","D. G. Senesky"],"year":2019,"venue":"Nano Letters 19, 3770–3776","doi":"10.1021/acs.nanolett.9b00901","notes":"Phonon drag treated as a component of the Seebeck coefficient: up to 32 % (88 %) of the Seebeck coefficient at 300 K (50 K) in a ~1.2 μm GaN film, negligible at ~100 nm; power factor up to ~40 mW m⁻¹ K⁻² at 50 K (abstract).","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/yalamarthy-2019-phonon-drag"},{"id":"source:yang-2022-pneumatic-piezo-harvester","type":"paper","title":"Design and Experimental Investigation of a Novel Piezoelectric Energy Harvester in Pneumatic System","authors":["C. Yang","W. Shi","C. Chen","Y. Gao","H. Wang"],"year":2022,"venue":"Energy Technology 10, 2200096","doi":"10.1002/ente.202200096","notes":"A sealed piezoelectric harvester on a pneumatic branch pipe captures air-pressure impacts; for a 0 to 0.5 MPa excursion the maximum peak power is 140 μW at 1500 kΩ and the power density 1.43 mW cm⁻³ (abstract).","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/yang-2022-pneumatic-piezo-harvester"},{"id":"source:mozumder-2026-wave-impact-piezo","type":"paper","title":"Design and Experimental Validation of a Piezoelectric Impact-Based Energy Harvester for Low-Frequency Oceanic Waves","authors":["I. Mozumder","S. C. Banik"],"year":2026,"venue":"SciEn Conference Series: Engineering 4, 684–687","doi":"10.38032/scse.2026.4.309","notes":"Conference paper. Five vertical pipes with stacked PZT-5A discs struck by impact balls driven by wave motion; laboratory tests at 0.1–2 Hz and 3.5 % salinity gave up to 1.28 V per pipe and about 20 mW per wave event with 70 g steel balls and double-disc stacks (abstract). One laboratory demonstration in a small venue: demonstrated, not replicated.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/mozumder-2026-wave-impact-piezo"},{"id":"source:frenkel-2019-marangoni-generator","type":"paper","title":"Mini-Generator of Electrical Power Exploiting the Marangoni Flow Inspired Self-Propulsion","authors":["M. Frenkel","A. Vilk","I. Legchenkova","S. Shoval","E. Bormashenko"],"year":2019,"venue":"ACS Omega 4, 15265–15268","doi":"10.1021/acsomega.9b02257","notes":"Open access (PMC6751999). Camphor emitted from floating polymer rotors lowers the water surface tension asymmetrically; the solutocapillary Marangoni stress rotates the rotor, whose permanent magnets induce a current in a stationary 800-turn coil (r = 35 Ω): maximal voltage 1.6 mV across a 35 Ω load, rotation lasting 10–20 h (full text).","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/frenkel-2019-marangoni-generator"},{"id":"source:yang-2025-flexoelectric-harvester","type":"paper","title":"Performance enhancement of flexoelectric energy harvester by structural design","authors":["S. Yang","Q. Yang","C. Zhang","Y. Kong","Y. Li","T. Lu","C. Shen"],"year":2025,"venue":"International Journal of Smart and Nano Materials 16(4), 908–928","doi":"10.1080/19475411.2025.2592544","notes":"Open access (full text read). A two-stage stepped epoxy cantilever with an unpolarised α-PVDF flexoelectric layer (60 × 10 mm, 45 μm) — the authors count it, with Thai et al., among the only pure flexoelectric harvesters tested; on a vibration exciter at 20 Hz and 0.915 g the measured average output was ≈ 0.19 V (theory 0.167 V). The 3.58 V / 94.93 mW m⁻³ at the 1.2 Hz resonance are theory and FEA, not measured: the shaker could not reach 1.2 Hz.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/yang-2025-flexoelectric-harvester"},{"id":"source:kumar-2019-vibration-refrigeration","type":"paper","title":"Vibration induced refrigeration using ferroelectric materials","authors":["A. Kumar","A. Chauhan","S. Patel","N. Novak","R. Kumar","R. Vaish"],"year":2019,"venue":"Scientific Reports 9, 3922","doi":"10.1038/s41598-019-40159-8","notes":"Proposal with finite-element analysis (abstract read): a cantilever cooling device with off-axis bulk ferroelectric patches (0.5BZT–0.5BCT) in which ambient vibration stresses the patches elastocalorically; 0.02 K per element at 324 K, 0.2 K in 50 s for ten elements at 1.5 Hz, ≈ 2 K predicted from 358 K. No device was built.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/kumar-2019-vibration-refrigeration"},{"id":"source:li-2022-bending-elastocaloric","type":"paper","title":"A compact NiTi elastocaloric air cooler with low force bending actuation","authors":["X. Li","S. Cheng","Q. Sun"],"year":2022,"venue":"Applied Thermal Engineering 215, 118942","doi":"10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2022.118942","notes":"Abstract read (HKUST repository record). Bent NiTi sheets (7.20 % maximum surface strain) transform at a specific driving force of 5.64 N g⁻¹, two orders of magnitude below tension or compression; the single-row cooler with an air duct gave a 5.5 K air-temperature reduction and 0.137 W g⁻¹ specific cooling power, the multi-row cooler 11.5 W.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/li-2022-bending-elastocaloric"},{"id":"source:xiao-2024-permeate-gap-thermo-osmotic","type":"paper","title":"Permeate gap thermo-osmotic system for simultaneous freshwater production, energy storage, and power generation","authors":["T. Xiao","T. Yan","C. Liu","L. Liu","M. Aziz"],"year":2024,"venue":"Energy Conversion and Management 314, 118636","doi":"10.1016/j.enconman.2024.118636","notes":"Full text read (an author-shared copy located through Google Scholar). A 32 cm² permeate-gap module (PTFE, hot feed to 70 °C, cold side 20 °C) pressurises its own permeate without a pump; in layout 1 the permeate rises through a vertical pipe to an elevated tank and the stream released from the tank propelled a small hydro-turbine generator that lit a 2 W-rated bulb — the authors' 'thermal-potential-mechanical energy conversion'. The laboratory head was limited to about 1.5 m; sealed-permeate pressurisation reached a liquid entry pressure of 222 kPa (PTFE with non-woven support); water flux fell 54.25 % from 0 to 200 kPa permeate pressure. No shaft or electrical output figure is reported for the bulb demonstration; the 72-hour fluctuating-source run used a virtual hydro-turbine (0.0065 L h⁻¹), and the 156.75 kW, 0.113 W m⁻² and 1.04 % exergy figures belong to the modelled 150 kW solar case study. For the atlas this is a longer-chain demonstration of the TOEC route: gravitational storage (head conversion) sits between the thermo-osmotic flow and the turbine.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/xiao-2024-permeate-gap-thermo-osmotic"},{"id":"source:luo-2023-thermal-osmosis-electrokinetic","type":"paper","title":"Utilization of low-grade heat for desalination and electricity generation through thermal osmosis energy conversion process","authors":["Q. Luo","A. He","S. Xu","M. Miao","T. Liu","B. Cao","K. Shan","B. Tang","X. Hu","L. Huang","H. Jiang"],"year":2023,"venue":"Chemical Engineering Journal 452, 139560","doi":"10.1016/j.cej.2022.139560","notes":"Abstract and introduction read on the publisher's page (online 2022, volume dated 15 January 2023). A PTFE thermal-osmosis unit produces pressurised fresh water on the confined cold side; the pressure-driven flow passes through the microchannels of an electrokinetic module, whose streaming potential is the electrical output: 18.46 kg m⁻² h⁻¹ of fresh water and 1.12 W m⁻² of output power density obtained simultaneously at a temperature difference of 50 °C; real seawater feed; the 1.0 μm PTFE membrane performed best. The authors chose the electrokinetic module because their unit could not sustain the continuous pressurised flow a turbine needs.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/luo-2023-thermal-osmosis-electrokinetic"},{"id":"source:huang-2021-membrane-distiller-electrokinetic","type":"paper","title":"Simultaneous water and electricity harvesting from low-grade heat by coupling a membrane distiller and an electrokinetic power generator","authors":["L. Huang","A. He","M. Miao","J. Pei","T. Liu","X. Lei","et al."],"year":2021,"venue":"Journal of Materials Chemistry A 9, 27709–27717","doi":"10.1039/d1ta07530f","notes":"Metadata and the one-sentence publisher abstract only ('a novel tandem MD-EPG system to harvest low-grade thermal energy … for synergetic water purification and electricity generation'). The earlier demonstration of the same tandem; its figures (13.4 kg m⁻² h⁻¹, 147 μW m⁻² at ΔT = 40 °C across a microporous Al₂O₃ membrane) are known to the atlas only through Xiao et al. 2024's description and are not recorded as measurements.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/huang-2021-membrane-distiller-electrokinetic"},{"id":"source:luo-2024-hollow-fibre-toec","type":"paper","title":"Thermal-driven osmosis utilizing hollow fiber membranes: Sustainable dye water treatment and electricity extraction","authors":["Q. Luo","L. Huang","P. Yun","T. Qiu","B. Tang","K. Huang","X. Hu","H. Jiang"],"year":2024,"venue":"Desalination 579, 117485","doi":"10.1016/j.desal.2024.117485","notes":"Abstract, highlights and introduction read on the publisher's page; full text paywalled. A hollow-fibre (PVDF, ≈ 0.7 m²) thermo-osmotic module for dye solutions: 'the continuous accumulation of condensed water generates pressure and drives a water turbine for sustainable power generation'; 16.75 W m⁻³ and 70.29 kg m⁻³ h⁻¹ at a 40 °C gradient 'under ideal conditions', alongside a theoretical optimisation model. Whether the turbine's output was physically measured cannot be settled from the abstract.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/luo-2024-hollow-fibre-toec"},{"id":"source:kuipers-2014-mempower","type":"paper","title":"Simultaneous production of high-quality water and electrical power from aqueous feedstock's and waste heat by high-pressure membrane distillation","authors":["N. J. M. Kuipers","J. H. Hanemaaijer","H. Brouwer","J. van Medevoort","A. Jansen","F. Altena","P. van der Vleuten","H. Bak"],"year":2015,"venue":"Desalination and Water Treatment 55(10), 2766–2776 (online 2014)","doi":"10.1080/19443994.2014.946724","notes":"Abstract read. TNO's MemPower concept: Memstill membrane distillation run at high hydraulic pressure produces a pressurised distillate from low-grade heat, the proof of principle being vapour transport against a hydraulic pressure gradient; 'power densities have been measured which are sufficient to drive the pumps'. Predates Straub et al. 2016; no turbine is described in the abstract.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/kuipers-2014-mempower"},{"id":"source:li-2021-stack-toec","type":"paper","title":"Stack Thermo-Osmotic System for Low-Grade Thermal Energy Conversion","authors":["J. Li","Z. Zhang","R. Zhao","B. Zhang","Y. Liang","R. Long","et al."],"year":2021,"venue":"ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 13","doi":"10.1021/acsami.1c03395","notes":"Abstract read. A multistage permeate-gap TOEC that works without pump assistance: 1.39 ± 0.25 W m⁻² at a heating temperature of 80 °C, efficiency rising linearly with the stage number; a 30-stage system at 5.0 MPa is calculated to reach 2.72 % and 14.0 W m⁻². The power density is that of the pressurised flow; no turbine is described.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/li-2021-stack-toec"},{"id":"source:zhao-2021-prmd-net-power","type":"paper","title":"Harvesting net power and desalinating water by pressure-retarded membrane distillation","authors":["R. Zhao","J. Li","Z. Zhang","R. Long","W. Liu","Z. Liu"],"year":2021,"venue":"Science China Technological Sciences 64","doi":"10.1007/s11431-021-1926-6","notes":"Abstract read. A multistage PRMD in which the phase-change heat reaches the interface by conduction, cutting pump loss: per m² of heating area, 188 L of fresh water and 27.8 kJ of pressure energy per day between 80 and 40 °C — net positive with low-grade heat as the only input. The 'power' is the pressure energy of the condensate; no turbine is described.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/zhao-2021-prmd-net-power"},{"id":"source:straub-elimelech-2017-toec-limits","type":"paper","title":"Energy Efficiency and Performance Limiting Effects in Thermo-Osmotic Energy Conversion from Low-Grade Heat","authors":["A. P. Straub","M. Elimelech"],"year":2017,"venue":"Environmental Science & Technology 51(21), 12925–12937","doi":"10.1021/acs.est.7b02213","notes":"Abstract read. The first energy-efficiency analysis of TOEC with vapour-gap membranes and water: an optimised system reaches 4.1 % heat-to-electricity (34 % of Carnot) at 60/20 °C and 5 MPa; lower efficiencies at high power density (> 5 W m⁻²) and with finite heat exchangers; asymmetric pores, pressure resistance, high porosity and 30–100 μm thickness matter most. Model, no experiment.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/straub-elimelech-2017-toec-limits"},{"id":"source:zhang-2026-marangoni-hydrovoltaic","type":"paper","title":"Chemical-Gradient-Induced Marangoni Flows Boost Solar-Brine Desalination and Enable Concurrent Power Generation","authors":["J. Zhang","P. Cui","H. Cai","H. Li","Y. Huang","et al."],"year":2026,"venue":"Advanced Functional Materials","doi":"10.1002/adfm.78354","notes":"Abstract read (OpenAlex). A graphene-oxide aerogel evaporator with a longitudinal gradient of oxygen-containing groups: the persistent surface-tension disparity sustains Marangoni microcirculation that co-drives water transport with capillary flow ('a dual-driving transport regime'); 540 kg m⁻³ h⁻¹ (2.7 kg m⁻² h⁻¹) in 20 wt% NaCl under 1 sun for 12 h, with a short-circuit current of 25 μA and an open-circuit voltage of 0.7 V, series devices powering an LED. The electrical contribution of the Marangoni branch is not isolated from the capillary one.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/zhang-2026-marangoni-hydrovoltaic"},{"id":"source:odukoya-naterer-2013-thermocapillary-mhe","type":"paper","title":"Transient response of thermocapillary pumping of a droplet in a micro heat engine","authors":["A. Odukoya","G. F. Naterer"],"year":2013,"venue":"International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 58, 202–212","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2012.11.009","notes":"Full text read (author copy, Memorial University repository). A micro heat engine fabricated on a PZT substrate with Ti-W microheaters: heat supplied by the heaters drives thermocapillary pumping of a droplet plug along a closed 60 × 60 × 15,000 μm channel, and the plug's pressure is to deflect a piezoelectric membrane. The experiments characterise the microheaters (four-point probe, heat flux 1.2–120 μW m⁻² per channel) and the droplet motion; the membrane deflection, the 1.2–1.3 mV (0.5 mV for a 300 nm membrane) and the ≈ 1.6 % efficiency are simulation results for that geometry, not measurements. Earlier droplet-motion experiments: Odukoya & Naterer 2010; Yang, Odukoya & Naterer 2010.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/odukoya-naterer-2013-thermocapillary-mhe"},{"id":"source:glockner-naterer-2007-microfluidic-power","type":"paper","title":"Recent advances in nano-electromechanical and microfluidic power generation","authors":["P. S. Glockner","G. F. Naterer"],"year":2007,"venue":"International Journal of Energy Research 31, 603–618","doi":"10.1002/er.1282","notes":"Abstract read. A review whose centrepiece is the thermocapillary micro heat engine: 'thermocapillary pumping of a discrete droplet in a microchannel converts heat input to droplet motion, then flexing of a piezoelectric membrane to generate electricity'; also microchannel streaming-current batteries and a nano-engine. Found by the Google Scholar mechanism-pair run of 21/09/2026.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/glockner-naterer-2007-microfluidic-power"},{"id":"source:russo-2017-radioluminescent-nuclear-battery","type":"paper","title":"A radioluminescent nuclear battery using volumetric configuration: 63Ni solution/ZnS:Cu,Al/InGaP","authors":["J. Russo","M. Litz","W. B. Ray","B. A. Smith","R. L. Moyers"],"year":2017,"venue":"Applied Radiation and Isotopes 130, 66–74","doi":"10.1016/j.apradiso.2017.09.018","notes":"Abstract and highlights read on the publisher's page (an OSTI copy exists, 1820702). A beta-photovoltaic nuclear battery: ⁶³Ni in chloride solution mixed with ZnS:Cu,Al phosphor (volumetric configuration) converts the β⁻ energy to light, and an InGaP photovoltaic cell matched to the radioluminescence spectrum converts the light to electricity; with 15 mCi the total power-conversion efficiency reached 0.289 % (0.0638 % for the planar configuration), and the highest electrical power was 3.35 nW cm⁻² at 30 mCi.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/russo-2017-radioluminescent-nuclear-battery"},{"id":"source:chan-2013-microthermophotovoltaic","type":"paper","title":"Toward high-energy-density, high-efficiency, and moderate-temperature chip-scale thermophotovoltaics","authors":["W. R. Chan","P. Bermel","R. C. N. Pilawa-Podgurski","C. H. Marton","K. F. Jensen","J. J. Senkevich","J. D. Joannopoulos","M. Soljačić","I. Celanovic"],"year":2013,"venue":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110(14), 5309–5314","doi":"10.1073/pnas.1301004110","notes":"Abstract read (open access; OSTI 1386838). The μTPV generator: a silicon propane microcombustor, an integrated high-temperature photonic-crystal selective thermal emitter, four 0.55 eV GaInAsSb thermophotovoltaic diodes and a maximum-power-point-tracking converter; operated to 800 °C combustor temperature with 13.7 W of thermal input, generating 344 mW of electric power over a 1 cm² area — 2.5 % measured against a 2.7 % prediction for the simplified system (up to 32 % predicted for the full design).","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/chan-2013-microthermophotovoltaic"},{"id":"source:glockner-naterer-2006-thermocapillary-pumping","type":"paper","title":"Surface tension and frictional resistance of thermocapillary pumping in a closed microchannel","authors":["P. S. Glockner","G. F. Naterer"],"year":2006,"venue":"International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 49(23–24), 4424–4436","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2006.05.005","notes":"Metadata verified on OpenAlex; cited by Odukoya & Naterer 2013 as the earlier analytical model of thermocapillary pumping of a droplet in a closed microchannel (surface tension and friction), which over-predicted the measured displacement. Not read; recorded as the theory behind the confined-plug regime.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/glockner-naterer-2006-thermocapillary-pumping"},{"id":"source:asim-2022-pico-waterwheel","type":"paper","title":"Design and Parametric Optimization of the High-Speed Pico Waterwheel for Rural Electrification of Pakistan","authors":["M. Asim","S. Muhammad","M. Amjad","M. Abdullah","M. A. Mujtaba","M. A. Kalam","et al."],"year":2022,"venue":"Sustainability 14(11), 6930","doi":"10.3390/su14116930","notes":"Open access, read on the publisher's page and again on the MDPI XML (pass 45 close). A pico waterwheel (C-, V- and straight blades; CFD and experiment) tested in an irrigation-channel rig; the '72–77 %' undershot range and the overshot '85 %' in its Introduction are prior literature (its references 13–14), not its measurements; its own result is Section 4.9: the C-shape turbine at 4 inches immersion on a 3 kW generator at full load 'achieved an overall efficiency of 66.42%', η_overall = P_out / P_in with P_out = v_g·i_g (Equations 12–13); 'the turbine was connected to a 3 kilowatt (kW) electrical generator, and the voltage and current were measured at full load conditions', the load being three 100 W bulbs, two 120 W fans and a 1 kW cutting machine. Installation needs channel velocities above 3 m/s and a head of about 1.5 m.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/asim-2022-pico-waterwheel"},{"id":"source:iwakiri-2026-thermopolarization","type":"preprint","title":"Observation of universal thermopolarization effect in insulators","authors":["S. Iwakiri","Y. Miyata","T. Mori"],"year":2026,"venue":"arXiv:2605.17224 (17 May 2026), National Institute for Materials Science, Tsukuba","url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/2605.17224","notes":"Preprint, not peer-reviewed; read in full. An on-chip heater driven at 1 kHz imposes a temperature gradient (≈ 0.5 K modulation) across 0.25–1 mm substrates; the non-uniform thermal expansion's strain gradient produces an out-of-plane flexoelectric polarization, detected as a second-harmonic voltage and as the screening current in a detector electrode, in MgO, Al₂O₃, MnO, mica, PET, PEN, polyimide and soda-lime glass; the heat-to-charge ratio collapses onto one trend against the coefficient of thermal expansion, reproduced by finite-element thermo-mechanics; 1/thickness scaling and an order-of-magnitude enhancement at the glass and antiferromagnetic transitions. No load is driven and no output power is reported: the composition observed, the work not extracted.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/iwakiri-2026-thermopolarization"},{"id":"source:han-2026-dual-mode-flexoelectric-nanogenerator","type":"paper","title":"Dual-Mode Flexoelectric Nanogenerators Activated by Light and Heat for Broad-Spectral Photodetection and Thermal Response","authors":["G. Han","A. Berbille","Y. Zhang","X. Luo","L. Li","L.-D. Liu","Z. L. Wang","L. Zhu"],"year":2026,"venue":"Advanced Functional Materials 36 (49), e75910","doi":"10.1002/adfm.75910","notes":"Abstract read on the publisher's page (full text paywalled; owner read requested). A heterojunction-based flexoelectric nanogenerator driven by light and heat with no external mechanical or electrical input: under illumination or temperature variation the heterojunction components deform differentially, producing an interfacial strain gradient that drives flexoelectric polarization and flexo-photovoltaic currents; photodetection mode 250–600 nm with peak responsivity 2.2 mA W⁻¹; thermal response mode with an effective pyroelectric coefficient up to 7518 μC m⁻² K⁻¹. The accessible record reports current responses, not a load curve or output power, and describes the thermal driver as a temperature variation (differential deformation of the two components), so whether the imposed field is the route's spatial temperature gradient is unverified.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/han-2026-dual-mode-flexoelectric-nanogenerator"},{"id":"source:wei-2024-thermoflexoelectric-pn-junction","type":"paper","title":"Exact solutions for thermally induced electromechanical fields of PN junctions in centrosymmetric semiconductors","authors":["C. Wei","Z. Guo","J. Tang","W. Huang"],"year":2024,"venue":"Journal of Applied Physics 136 (4), 045703","doi":"10.1063/5.0218259","notes":"Abstract read (hybrid open access). Theory: defines the thermoflexoelectric effect — temperature gradients generate inhomogeneous strains and further induce flexoelectric polarizations — and solves a one-dimensional PN-junction model under a temperature gradient, showing the temperature-gradient-induced flexoelectric field tunes the potential barrier. Recorded as the source of the thermoflexoelectric alias; not an experiment.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/wei-2024-thermoflexoelectric-pn-junction"},{"id":"source:yurkov-2019-flexoelectric-inhomogeneous-heating","type":"paper","title":"Flexoelectric polarization induced by inhomogeneous heating and implications for energy harvesting","authors":["A. S. Yurkov","A. Dejneka","P. V. Yudin"],"year":2019,"venue":"International Journal of Solids and Structures 162, 96–104","doi":"10.1016/j.ijsolstr.2018.12.003","notes":"Abstract read on the publisher's page (open archive). Theory by variational principles of the polarization response of an inhomogeneously heated thin plate; the authors estimate that the effect could convert waste heat into electric power at up to tens of watts per kilogram of flexoelectric material — a calculated bound, no device. A citation-chase seed for the route.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/yurkov-2019-flexoelectric-inhomogeneous-heating"},{"id":"source:yazaki-1998-travelling-wave-tae","type":"paper","title":"Traveling Wave Thermoacoustic Engine in a Looped Tube","authors":["T. Yazaki","A. Iwata","T. Maekawa","A. Tominaga"],"year":1998,"venue":"Physical Review Letters 81, 3128–3131","doi":"10.1103/PhysRevLett.81.3128","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref. The first travelling-wave thermoacoustic engine: a looped tube in which the acoustic wave circulates with a non-zero time-averaged acoustic power flux, as distinct from the standing wave of a straight resonator.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/yazaki-1998-travelling-wave-tae"},{"id":"source:backhaus-swift-2000","type":"paper","title":"A thermoacoustic-Stirling heat engine: Detailed study","authors":["S. Backhaus","G. W. Swift"],"year":2000,"venue":"Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 107, 3148–3166","doi":"10.1121/1.429343","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref. The detailed study of the travelling-wave (Stirling-cycle) thermoacoustic engine of Backhaus & Swift 1999 (Nature 399, 335: 710 W of acoustic power at 30 % thermal efficiency, ≈ 30 bar helium, ≈ 80 Hz) — the regime in which the engine's wave carries directed acoustic power.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/backhaus-swift-2000"},{"id":"source:weinreich-1957-attenuation","type":"paper","title":"Ultrasonic Attenuation by Free Carriers in Germanium","authors":["G. Weinreich"],"year":1957,"venue":"Physical Review 107, 317–318","doi":"10.1103/PhysRev.107.317.2","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref. The Weinreich relation: the acoustoelectric field (current) is tied to the ultrasonic attenuation the free carriers cause — momentum lost by the wave is transferred to the carriers.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/weinreich-1957-attenuation"},{"id":"source:weinreich-sanders-white-1959","type":"paper","title":"Acoustoelectric Effect in n-Type Germanium","authors":["G. Weinreich","T. M. Sanders","H. G. White"],"year":1959,"venue":"Physical Review 114, 33–44","doi":"10.1103/PhysRev.114.33","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref. Theory and measurement of the acoustoelectric drag of electrons by a travelling ultrasonic wave in arsenic-doped n-type germanium (the second reader: donor concentrations of order 10¹⁴–10¹⁶ cm⁻³, 20–160 K), the quantitative validation of the Weinreich relation; the carrier-related attenuation was small enough to be hard to measure.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/weinreich-sanders-white-1959"},{"id":"source:zheng-2022-thermoacoustic-pan","type":"paper","title":"Thermoacoustic energy harvesting using thermally-stabilized polyacrylonitrile nanofibers","authors":["Y. Zheng","W. Wang","J. Niu","X. Jin","Y. Sun","L. Peng","W. Li","H. Wang","T. Lin"],"year":2022,"venue":"Nano Energy 95, 106995","doi":"10.1016/j.nanoen.2022.106995","notes":"Abstract read on the publisher's page. Thermally stabilised electrospun PAN nanofibre membranes convert sound into electricity piezoelectrically up to 450 °C: under mono-frequency sound (118 dB, 230 Hz) a 3 × 3 cm² device gives 118 V open-circuit and 12 μA short-circuit (392 mW m⁻²); driven in situ by a mini thermoacoustic engine, with the device at 280 °C, peak outputs of 102 V and 10 μA ran 30 LEDs and charged a lithium battery and a capacitor, stable for at least 2 h. The authors' word 'acoustoelectric' names piezoelectric acoustic-to-electric conversion, not Weinreich carrier drag.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/zheng-2022-thermoacoustic-pan"},{"id":"source:atashbar-2026-graphene-pmn-pt","type":"paper","title":"Observation of giant acoustoelectric currents in graphene on lead magnesium niobate–lead titanate","authors":["M. Atashbar","H. Mansoorzare","T. Jabegu","S. Lei","M. Galanko Klemash","S. Bedair","R. Abdolvand"],"year":2026,"venue":"Nature Communications 17, 8932","doi":"10.1038/s41467-026-74813-3","notes":"Open access, abstract and results read. Interdigitated transducers on (111)-cut PMN–PT launch a surface acoustic wave through monolayer graphene: the acoustoelectric current reaches 90.39 μA and the open-circuit voltage 341.72 mV at 20 dBm RF input with a 50 V gate (17 μA and 225 mV ungated), an acoustoelectric responsivity of 7.66 μA/(W·MHz). The travelling solid-state wave is launched electrically, not by heat.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/atashbar-2026-graphene-pmn-pt"},{"id":"source:smoker-2012-thermoacoustic-piezoelectric","type":"paper","title":"Energy harvesting from a standing wave thermoacoustic-piezoelectric resonator","authors":["J. Smoker","M. Nouh","O. Aldraihem","A. Baz"],"year":2012,"venue":"Journal of Applied Physics 111, 104901","doi":"10.1063/1.4712630","notes":"Abstract read (Crossref). A one-dimensional thermoacoustic-piezoelectric resonator: a steep temperature gradient along an optimally placed porous stack drives self-sustained acoustic waves whose pressure fluctuations excite a piezoelectric diaphragm at the far end, converting acoustic to electrical energy with no moving parts; predicted with DeltaEC and validated on a small prototype (infrared temperature field, PIV flow field, microphone array, conversion efficiency). No output figures in the abstract.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/smoker-2012-thermoacoustic-piezoelectric"},{"id":"source:li-2026-thermoacoustic-teng","type":"paper","title":"High-temperature energy harvesting via thermoacoustic-triboelectric hybridization: Design, modelling, and application demonstration","authors":["Y. Li","Y. Wang","H. Tang","L. Dong","B. Ning","G. Chen","G. Hu"],"year":2026,"venue":"Nano Energy 155, 112082","doi":"10.1016/j.nanoen.2026.112082","notes":"Abstract read on the publisher's page. A piston-assisted thermoacoustic engine integrated with a honeycomb-structured freestanding contact-separation triboelectric nanogenerator: a nonlinear CFD model of the onset; stable self-sustained oscillations at heating temperatures around 150 °C; peak power 0.49 mW at 80 MΩ; four stacked units charge 1 μF to 17.05 V in 10 s; with power management the harvested energy runs a wireless temperature sensor.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/li-2026-thermoacoustic-teng"},{"id":"source:ahmed-2025-thermoacoustic-liquid-metal-teng","type":"paper","title":"Time-domain modeling and experimental validation of an integrated thermoacoustic-liquid metal triboelectric nanogenerator","authors":["F. Ahmed","G. Yu","A. Zou","E. Luo"],"year":2025,"venue":"Energy 334, 137745","doi":"10.1016/j.energy.2025.137745","notes":"Abstract read on the publisher's page. A thermoacoustic heat engine (self-sustained oscillation at 15 Hz, up to 31.3 W acoustic under 300 W heat input) integrated with a mercury–Kapton sliding-mode triboelectric nanogenerator: 18.8 V open-circuit and 3.2 μA short-circuit for one layer, 0.1 W m⁻² and 10.5 mA m⁻² with 32 stacked layers; a lumped acoustic-electric time-domain model validated on the experiment (onset temperature within 82.9 %). No solid moving parts — a gas–liquid boundary, physically distinct from the piston-coupled device.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/ahmed-2025-thermoacoustic-liquid-metal-teng"},{"id":"source:marvan-1969-thermopolarization","type":"paper","title":"The electric polarization induced by temperature gradient and associated thermoelectric effects","authors":["M. Marvan"],"year":1969,"venue":"Czechoslovak Journal of Physics B 19, 1240–1245","doi":"10.1007/bf01690309","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref. The first phenomenological prediction of a polarization induced by a temperature gradient in a dielectric, credited by Tagantsev's 1987 review.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/marvan-1969-thermopolarization"},{"id":"source:kholkin-1982-thermopolarization-current","type":"paper","title":"Thermopolarization currents in dielectrics","authors":["A. L. Kholkin","V. A. Trepakov","G. A. Smolenskii"],"year":1982,"venue":"JETP Letters 35 (3), 124–127 (Pis'ma Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz. 35, 103–106)","url":"http://www.jetpletters.ru/ps/1313/article_19837.shtml","notes":"Read in full from the JETP Letters archive (four pages). Pure, undoped PbMg₁/₃Nb₂/₃O₃ single crystals — centrosymmetric and paraelectric above 273 K, resistivity ~10¹⁴ Ω·cm — cut as 3 × 3 × 8 mm parallelepipeds with Degus-paste electrodes on the long faces; one end at room temperature, the other heated, in vacuum ≈ 10⁻³ Torr. The external-circuit current density follows the rate of change of the end-to-end temperature difference (ΔT up to ≈ 55 K over 8 mm), reverses when the sign of ∇T is reversed (unlike the pyroelectric current of the sample's random unipolarity, which does not), and its maximum is linear in d(ΔT)/dt (Fig. 2), the slope giving a thermopolarization coefficient B₁₁ ≈ 3 × 10⁻¹² C/(cm·K), a polarization of order 10⁻¹⁰ C/cm² at T = 310 K and ∇T = 30 K/cm; Gurevich's estimate B₁₁ ≈ 10⁻¹³ C/(cm·K) is of the same order. The authors attribute the current to the direct thermopolarization effect of Gurevich's theory; a thermal-expansion strain-gradient (flexoelectric) contribution is not considered, so the letter does not by itself separate the two mechanisms.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/kholkin-1982-thermopolarization-current"},{"id":"source:tagantsev-1987-thermal-polarization","type":"review","title":"Pyroelectric, piezoelectric, flexoelectric, and thermal polarization effects in ionic crystals","authors":["A. K. Tagantsev"],"year":1987,"venue":"Soviet Physics Uspekhi 30, 588–603","doi":"10.1070/PU1987v030n07ABEH002926","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref. The review that treats the polarization response to a temperature gradient (the thermal polarization effect) as a response distinct from flexoelectricity (the response to a strain gradient), crediting Marvan's 1969 formulation; the definition the atlas's thermopolarization phenomenon rests on. Distinct from Tagantsev 1986 (Phys. Rev. B 34, 5883), the atlas's flexoelectric chase seed.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/tagantsev-1987-thermal-polarization"},{"id":"source:trepakov-1989-proper-thermopolarization","type":"paper","title":"Recent developments of the thermopolarization effect investigation","authors":["V. A. Trepakov","K. M. Nurieva","A. K. Tagantsev"],"year":1989,"venue":"Ferroelectrics 94, 377–381","doi":"10.1080/00150198908014283","notes":"Abstract read on OpenAlex. The thermopolarization effect measured in centrosymmetric SrTiO₃ and KTaO₃ and in piezoelectric KH₂PO₄ single crystals 'in spite of the tertiary pyroeffect competition', with criteria separating a 'proper' (non-flexoelectric) thermopolarization from the flexoelectric contribution and experimental evidence for the proper effect. Full text not yet read.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/trepakov-1989-proper-thermopolarization"},{"id":"source:rafikov-1994-dynamic-thermopolarization","type":"paper","title":"Frequency and temperature dependence of the thermopolarization response in dynamic investigations","authors":["E. Rafikov","A. Savinov","L. Jastrabík","V. A. Trepakov"],"year":1994,"venue":"physica status solidi (a) 144, 471–477","doi":"10.1002/pssa.2211440228","notes":"Abstract read on OpenAlex. The dynamic thermopolarization response of paraelectric PbNi₁/₃Nb₂/₃O₃ and PbMg₁/₃Nb₂/₃O₃ measured in low- and high-frequency regimes: ∝ ω^½ and inversely proportional to thickness at low frequency, ∝ ω^−½ and thickness-independent at high frequency, the low-frequency temperature dependence following the bulk susceptibility — consistent with the thermopolarization theory.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/rafikov-1994-dynamic-thermopolarization"},{"id":"source:onishi-2025-thermopolarization","type":"paper","title":"Theory of Thermopolarization Effect","authors":["Y. Onishi","H. Isobe","A. Shitade","N. Nagaosa"],"year":2025,"venue":"Nano Letters 25, 2763–2768","doi":"10.1021/acs.nanolett.4c05870","notes":"Abstract read on OpenAlex. The polarization response of an insulator to a temperature gradient described through the free-energy response to an electric-field gradient (the Q tensor): a unified description of polarization responses to electric fields and temperature gradients, a generalized Mott relation, an analogy with the anomalous Hall and Nernst effects; observable as a Seebeck-like signal when the sample is shorter than the screening length. Modern linear-response theory of the direct effect.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/onishi-2025-thermopolarization"},{"id":"source:nasu-2022-antisymmetric-thermopolarization","type":"paper","title":"Antisymmetric thermopolarization by electric toroidicity","authors":["J. Nasu","S. Hayami"],"year":2022,"venue":"Physical Review B 105, 245125","doi":"10.1103/PhysRevB.105.245125","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref. A modern theory in which the thermopolarization tensor acquires an antisymmetric part from electric toroidicity — the thermopolarization tensor as an active independent concept.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/nasu-2022-antisymmetric-thermopolarization"},{"id":"source:williams-1971-gas-core-reactor-mhd","type":"paper","title":"An evaluation of gas core reactors with MHD conversion for clean, economical power generation","authors":["J. R. Williams"],"year":1971,"venue":"AIAA paper 71-1510, Joint Conference on Sensing of Environmental Pollutants","doi":"10.2514/6.1971-1510","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; title-level. Names the coupled concept — a gas-core reactor with MHD conversion — as one device; provenance for the composition term.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/williams-1971-gas-core-reactor-mhd"},{"id":"source:kien-harada-2006-nfr-mhd","type":"paper","title":"Studies on Low Specific Mass NFR/MHD Power Generation System for Space Applications","authors":["L. C. Kien","N. Harada"],"year":2006,"venue":"Transactions of the Japan Society for Aeronautical and Space Sciences 49, 109–116","doi":"10.2322/tjsass.49.109","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; title-level. A nuclear-fission-reactor / MHD power-generation system study; provenance for the composition term NFR/MHD power generation.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/kien-harada-2006-nfr-mhd"},{"id":"source:anghaie-2002-gaseous-core-reactor-mhd","type":"report","title":"Direct Energy Conversion Fission Reactor, Gaseous Core Reactor with Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Generator; Final Report - Part I and Part II","authors":["S. Anghaie","B. Smith","T. Knight"],"year":2002,"venue":"US DOE (OSTI 850575)","doi":"10.2172/850575","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; title-level. A DOE final report on the gaseous-core reactor with an MHD generator as a direct-energy-conversion fission reactor; provenance for the composition term.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/anghaie-2002-gaseous-core-reactor-mhd"},{"id":"source:latham-rodgers-1972-nuclear-light-bulb","type":"paper","title":"Small nuclear light bulb engines with cold beryllium reflectors","authors":["T. S. Latham","R. J. Rodgers"],"year":1972,"venue":"AIAA paper 72-1093, 8th Joint Propulsion Specialist Conference","doi":"10.2514/6.1972-1093","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; title-level. Uses the field's name for the gaseous-fissioning-uranium radiant source behind a transparent wall; provenance for the composition term nuclear light bulb (the second reader also points to Kendall & Stoeffler 1972, NASA CR-129298).","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/latham-rodgers-1972-nuclear-light-bulb"},{"id":"source:schneider-thom-1975-fissioning-uranium-plasmas","type":"review","title":"Fissioning Uranium Plasmas and Nuclear-Pumped Lasers","authors":["R. T. Schneider","K. Thom"],"year":1975,"venue":"Nuclear Technology 27, 34–50","doi":"10.13182/NT75-A15934","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; title-level. The NASA uranium-plasma programme's review: fissioning uranium plasma as a radiant source and pump for lasers; provenance for the broad composition terms gas-core / gaseous-core / plasma-core reactor.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/schneider-thom-1975-fissioning-uranium-plasmas"},{"id":"source:lee-1974-fissioning-uranium-plasma","type":"paper","title":"Production of Fissioning Uranium Plasma to Approximate Gas-Core Reactor Conditions","authors":["J. H. Lee","D. R. McFarland","F. Hohl","K. Kim"],"year":1974,"venue":"Nuclear Technology 22, 306–314","doi":"10.13182/NT74-A31415","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; title-level. A fissioning uranium plasma physically produced to approximate gas-core reactor conditions; provenance for the broad composition term fissioning uranium plasma.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/lee-1974-fissioning-uranium-plasma"},{"id":"source:bresme-2008-water-polarization","type":"paper","title":"Water Polarization under Thermal Gradients","authors":["F. Bresme","A. Lervik","D. Bedeaux","S. Kjelstrup"],"year":2008,"venue":"Physical Review Letters 101, 020602","doi":"10.1103/PhysRevLett.101.020602","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; abstract read on OpenAlex. Non-equilibrium molecular dynamics of bulk liquid water under a temperature gradient: the gradient polarizes the water along itself through molecular reorientation, giving an electrostatic field whose dependence on the gradient agrees with non-equilibrium thermodynamics; gradients of order 10⁸ K/m are estimated to give fields of order 10⁶ V/m. Simulation, no experiment — the first evidence of the liquid spelling.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/bresme-2008-water-polarization"},{"id":"source:armstrong-bresme-2015-thermal-polarization-inversion","type":"paper","title":"Temperature inversion of the thermal polarization of water","authors":["J. Armstrong","F. Bresme"],"year":2015,"venue":"Physical Review E 92, 060103","doi":"10.1103/PhysRevE.92.060103","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; abstract read on OpenAlex. NEMD: the thermal polarization of water depends strongly on temperature and reverses sign at a specific temperature, the balance of dipolar and quadrupolar contributions with the quadrupolar term set by thermal expansion. Simulation.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/armstrong-bresme-2015-thermal-polarization-inversion"},{"id":"source:gittus-2020-acetonitrile-thermal-polarization","type":"paper","title":"Polarization of acetonitrile under thermal fields via non-equilibrium molecular dynamics simulations","authors":["O. R. Gittus","P. Albella","F. Bresme"],"year":2020,"venue":"The Journal of Chemical Physics 153, 204503","doi":"10.1063/5.0025148","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; abstract read on OpenAlex. NEMD: thermal gradients polarize liquid and supercritical acetonitrile, a stationary electrostatic potential building up between hot and cold regions; near standard conditions the thermal polarization coefficient is ≈ −0.6 mV/K, so gradients of ≈ 1 K/µm give fields of ≈ 10³ V/m; the heat–polarization coupling lowers the thermal conductivity by ≈ 2–5 %. Simulation, a second polar liquid.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/gittus-2020-acetonitrile-thermal-polarization"},{"id":"source:mathe-2022-ferroelectric-nematic-thermomotor","type":"paper","title":"Ferroelectric nematic liquid crystal thermomotor","authors":["M. T. Máthé","Á. Buka","A. Jákli","P. Salamon"],"year":2022,"venue":"Physical Review E 105, L052701","doi":"10.1103/PhysRevE.105.L052701","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; abstract read on OpenAlex. A physical experiment: tracer particles on ferroelectric-nematic sessile drops circulate under a vertical thermal gradient; the authors' model drives the rotation with the tangential ferroelectric polarization, the vertical gradient and the pyroelectricity of the fluid, the particles charging in the fluid. The nearest physical liquid experiment found in pass 32 — the temperature dependence of an already ordered polarization (pyroelectricity), not the gradient-induced polarization of a polar liquid: wrong coupling for the liquid thermopolarization claim.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/mathe-2022-ferroelectric-nematic-thermomotor"},{"id":"source:marvan-fahnrich-1997-limm-thermopolarization","type":"paper","title":"Laser Intensity Modulation Method and Thermal Gradient Induced Polarization","authors":["M. Marvan","J. Fähnrich"],"year":1997,"venue":"physica status solidi (a) 163, 263–270","doi":"10.1002/1521-396X(199709)163:1<263::AID-PSSA263>3.0.CO;2-T","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; abstract read on OpenAlex. The contribution of the thermopolarization effect (P ∝ ∇T) to the signal of the laser intensity modulation method was studied theoretically, shown to be large enough to observe, and compared with the pyroelectric signal. Theory by the effect's first theorist — not an experiment in polymer films.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/marvan-fahnrich-1997-limm-thermopolarization"},{"id":"source:lu-2024-otec-platform","type":"paper","title":"Design and Experimental Study of 50 kW Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Test Platform Based on Organic Rankine Cycle","authors":["B. Lu","Y. Liu","X. Zhai","L. Zhang","Y. Chen"],"year":2024,"venue":"Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 12, 463","doi":"10.3390/jmse12030463","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; full text read (open access). A land-based 50 kW R134a organic-Rankine OTEC test platform at Shandong University with a heat-pump unit simulating the warm and cold seawater. Design (engineering-calibration) point: 28 °C heat source, 4 °C cold source, thermal efficiency 2.63 %, turbine output 50.3 kW (Table 2 check values: warm seawater 191.49 kg/s, cold 183.93 kg/s, working fluid 7.648 kg/s, evaporator 1608.56 kW, condenser 1545.68 kW; Table 1 state points ≈ 24.6 °C / 645.8 kPa evaporation, ≈ 8 °C / 387.6 kPa condensation). Experiment: the conclusion states the simulation system ran the heat source at 24–28 °C and the cold source at 4–8 °C, Figure 11 shows the warm water at ≈ 27.5–30.5 °C and the cold water at ≈ 4.5–7 °C over the 6000 s run with the flows stepped from ≈ 530 to ≈ 740 m³/h; the maximum grid-connected power is 47.4 kW (47.5 kW in the abstract) and the actual thermal efficiency 2.46 % (Figure 12). The paper prints no temperature pair for the operating point of the experimental efficiency.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/lu-2024-otec-platform"},{"id":"source:shaheed-2023-al-mosyab","type":"paper","title":"Evaluation Performance of the Steam Power Plant in Iraq Based on Energy and Exergy Analysis","authors":["H. R. Shaheed","H. N. Mohammed","R. M. Radhi"],"year":2023,"venue":"International Journal of Heat and Technology 41, 253–258","doi":"10.18280/ijht.410128","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; full text read (open PDF). Energy and exergy analysis of Unit 3 of the Al-Mosyab thermal power station (Iraq, completed 1990, four 300 MW units, running at ≈ 65 % of rated capacity) at 225 MW load, solved in Engineering Equation Solver from the unit's readings — Table 1: main steam 168 kg/s at 152 bar and 539 °C, crude-oil fuel 14.68 kg/s at NCV 10,074 kcal/kg, condenser 0.1 bar, cooling water 24 °C, 3000 rpm (design, Table 2: 300 MW, 170 bar, 538 °C, 0.0653 bar, 23 °C; the model reproduces the design point within 1.33 %). Results (Table 4): cycle thermal efficiency 39.3 %, second-law efficiency 34.91 %, exergy destruction 412.68 MW, boiler thermal efficiency 94 %; the text quotes 39.91 % and Figure 2's condenser-pressure sweep runs from 39.39 % at 0.06 bar to 37.97 % at 0.24 bar. The efficiency is a first-law computation of the readings, not a metered figure.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/shaheed-2023-al-mosyab"},{"id":"source:al-mhanna-2024-isccs","type":"paper","title":"Simulation and Energy Analysis of Integrated Solar Combined Cycle Systems (ISCCS) Using Aspen Plus","authors":["N. M. Al Mhanna","I. Al Hadidi","S. Al Maskari"],"year":2024,"venue":"Energies 17, 3986","doi":"10.3390/en17163986","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; full text read (open access). An Aspen Plus model of one gas-turbine train of a 678 MW combined-cycle station in Oman (three gas turbines, two steam turbines), validated against the plant's data before a parabolic-trough integration is simulated. Table 2 (plant inputs): air 505.36 kg/s at 26.6 °C and 0.9981 bar, compressor discharge 9.4 bar (isentropic efficiency 0.883), natural-gas fuel 9.2 kg/s at 22.8 bar and 15.6 °C (LHV 43,662 kJ/kg; 92.5 % methane), turbine discharge 1 bar (isentropic efficiency 0.85), HRSG feed 235,400 + 40,000 kg/h. Table 3 (local plant data vs simulation): gas-turbine work output 127 MW (126.45), steam-turbine work output 61.5 MW (59.47), gas-turbine inlet 1050 °C (1010.46), exhaust 540.7 °C (556.93), efficiency 46.93 % (46.28) — the efficiency is the combined cycle's: (127 + 61.5) MW over 9.2 kg/s × 43,662 kJ/kg = 401.7 MW reproduces 46.93 % exactly.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/al-mhanna-2024-isccs"},{"id":"source:cheng-2018-pec-19-percent","type":"paper","title":"Monolithic Photoelectrochemical Device for Direct Water Splitting with 19% Efficiency","authors":["W.-H. Cheng","M. H. Richter","M. M. May","J. Ohlmann","D. Lackner","F. Dimroth","T. Hannappel","H. A. Atwater","H.-J. Lewerenz"],"year":2018,"venue":"ACS Energy Letters 3, 1795–1800","doi":"10.1021/acsenergylett.8b00920","notes":"Metadata verified on Crossref; abstract read on OpenAlex; the full text read on the arXiv version 1706.01493 (loop-3 pass 46). A monolithic tandem photocathode — Ga₀.₄₁In₀.₅₉P / Ga₀.₈₉In₀.₁₁As dual-junction absorber with bandgaps 1.78 eV / 1.26 eV grown by metal-organic vapour-phase epitaxy, a crystalline TiO₂ interlayer by atomic-layer deposition, Rh nanoparticle catalyst — reaching solar-to-hydrogen efficiencies of 19.3 % in acidic perchlorate electrolyte and 18.5 % at pH 7 under simulated AM 1.5G, unassisted. 'With the energy bandgap combination (GaInP/GaInAs with 1.78 eV/1.26 eV), a theoretical efficiency of 22.8 % under AM 1.5G conditions can be reached, assuming 100 % above bandgap absorption and 100 % external radiative efficiency (ERE)', in the SQwater framework of Fountaine, Lewerenz & Atwater 2016 (Figure 1c: catalytic exchange current density {1, 10⁻³} mA cm⁻², R_S = 0, R_SH = ∞); Table S1: STH 19.3 %, SQwater 22.8 %, ratio 0.85 for this work.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/cheng-2018-pec-19-percent"},{"id":"source:nicol-2015-ieaccc-double-reheat","type":"report","title":"Application and development prospects of double-reheat coal-fired power units","authors":["K. Nicol"],"year":2015,"venue":"IEA Clean Coal Centre, CCC/255, ISBN 978-92-9029-577-8","url":"https://usea.org/sites/default/files/media/Application%20and%20development%20prospects%20of%20double-reheat%20coal-fired%20power%20units%20-%20ccc255.pdf","notes":"Read in full (open PDF hosted by USEA). Section 7.2.6: Nordjylland unit 3 (415 MWe, commissioned 1998, once-through USC Benson tower boiler, double reheat, 580 °C / 580 °C / 580 °C at 29 MPa) 'reaches 47% net electrical efficiency (LHV) in power only mode, and is currently (Dec 2014) the world's most efficient PCC unit' (citing Morrison 2011, Poulsen & Bendixen 2006, Vattenfall 2014); low-temperature (10 °C) seawater cooling, high superheat and double reheat named as the reasons. Table 4 (Poulsen & Bendixen 2006, 2005 results): power-only mode at 100 % load, condensing, 10 °C cooling water — generator 411 MWe, auxiliaries 26 MWe, 385 MWe to the 400 kV grid, boiler efficiency 94.2 %, heat rate 7151.4 kJ/kWh on generator output, thermal efficiency (400 kV to grid) 47.2 %; CHP mode 339.5 MWe + 422 MJ/s district heat, 90 % total. The table labels the coal's 26 MJ/kg a gross calorific value while the text gives the fuel as 25.2 MJ/kg LHV / 26.4 MJ/kg HHV, so the 47.2 % row's basis is not unambiguous; the 47 % (LHV, net, power-only) statement of §7.2.6 is the figure the atlas records.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/nicol-2015-ieaccc-double-reheat"},{"id":"source:nrc-boiling-water-reactors","type":"web","title":"Boiling Water Reactors — how a typical commercial BWR works","authors":["U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission"],"year":2025,"venue":"nrc.gov","url":"https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/power/bwrs","notes":"Read in full (21/09/2026). 'A steam-water mixture is produced when very pure water (reactor coolant) moves upward through the core, absorbing heat. The steam-water mixture leaves the top of the core and enters the two stages of moisture separation before the steam is allowed to enter the steamline', which directs it to the main turbine; the condensate is pumped, reheated and returned to the reactor vessel. The direct-boiling topology: the reactor coolant itself is the turbine's steam.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/nrc-boiling-water-reactors"},{"id":"source:nrc-pressurized-water-reactors","type":"web","title":"Pressurized Water Reactors — how a typical commercial PWR works","authors":["U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission"],"year":2025,"venue":"nrc.gov","url":"https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/power/pwrs","notes":"Read in full (21/09/2026). 'Pressurized water in the primary coolant loop carries the heat to the steam generator. Inside the steam generator, heat from the primary coolant loop vaporizes the water in a secondary loop, producing steam', which the steamline directs to the main turbine. The two-circuit topology: fission heats a pressurised liquid, and a heat exchanger — not the core — makes the turbine's steam.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/nrc-pressurized-water-reactors"},{"id":"source:brown-1977-nasa-cr-135194","type":"report","title":"Electronic and mechanical improvement of the receiving terminal of a free-space microwave power transmission system","authors":["W. C. Brown"],"year":1977,"venue":"NASA CR-135194 (Raytheon Company, contract NAS3-19722), NASA Technical Reports Server 19770024669","url":"https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19770024669","notes":"Read in full (open NTRS PDF, loop-3 pass 39). The rectenna element improved under the study (higher-impedance microwave circuit, higher DC load resistance, improved diodes) reached 'an efficiency of 90.5 ± 0.5 % at the 8 watt input level and 79.5 ± 0.5 % at the 50 milliwatt level', and 45 % at 1 mW, at 2450 MHz; the certified overall DC-to-DC transmission efficiency of March 1975 at Raytheon was 54 %; the Goldstone demonstration converted over 82 % of the microwave power impinging on a 264 ft² rectenna into over 30 kW of DC over 1.6 km. The 90.6 % the later reviews quote is not in this report — its own element figure is 90.5 ± 0.5 %.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/brown-1977-nasa-cr-135194"},{"id":"source:doe-hdbk-1012-2-92","type":"report","title":"DOE Fundamentals Handbook: Thermodynamics, Heat Transfer, and Fluid Flow, Volume 2 of 3 (DOE-HDBK-1012/2-92)","authors":["U.S. Department of Energy"],"year":1992,"venue":"DOE-HDBK-1012/2-92, June 1992","url":"https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2026-04/DOE-HDBK-1012-92_VOL2.pdf","notes":"Read (open PDF on energy.gov, loop-3 pass 41). 'Convection involves the transfer of heat by the motion and mixing of macroscopic portions of a fluid … The term natural convection is used if this motion and mixing is caused by density variations resulting from temperature differences within the fluid. The term forced convection is used if this motion and mixing is caused by an outside force, such as a pump. … The transfer of heat from the surface of a heat exchanger to the bulk of a fluid being pumped through the heat exchanger is an example of forced convection.'","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/doe-hdbk-1012-2-92"},{"id":"source:nasa-lewis-mhd-tech-preview","type":"report","title":"Lewis Tech Preview: Research Nonequilibrium MHD Power Generator Facility","authors":["NASA Lewis Research Center","Electromagnetic Propulsion Division"],"venue":"NASA Lewis Research Center tech preview N-422 67/11-39 (one page; the date is not printed beyond that document code)","url":"https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/MHD-Power-Generator-Facility-Tech-Preview.pdf","notes":"Read (open PDF on grc.nasa.gov, loop-3 pass 41 close). 'In an MHD generator a hot high-speed conducting gas flows through a magnetic field. As a result of this motion, a voltage is induced. This voltage drives a current through a load and generates electric power.' The closed-loop nonequilibrium facility ran at 1.8 kg/s, 2100 K stagnation temperature, 4 atm, Mach 0.3–0.5; plasma and electrode shorting limited the initial generated power.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/nasa-lewis-mhd-tech-preview"},{"id":"source:smith-1979-nasa-tm-79135","type":"report","title":"Preliminary results in the NASA Lewis H2-O2 combustion MHD experiment","authors":["J. Marlin Smith"],"year":1979,"venue":"NASA Technical Memorandum 79135 (E-9983); prepared for the 18th Symposium on the Engineering Aspects of Magnetohydrodynamics, Butte, Montana, June 18–20, 1979","url":"https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19790014726","notes":"Read (open NTRS PDF, loop-3 pass 41 close). Cesium-seeded H₂–O₂ combustion MHD generator in a neon-cooled cryomagnet (fields above 5 T; peak used 5 T): the combustion chamber and nozzle are water-cooled copper, 'the nozzle is designed for Mach 2 at the 4.96 cm diameter exit', stagnation pressures 5–20 atm, feeding 'a diverging circular cross section duct having an inlet Mach number of 2' of 42 copper electrodes in a Hall configuration; power output proportional to the square of the B-field; 8.74 kW (run 407) rising to 11.7 kW (run 413) when the front power takeoff moved downstream. The channel velocity is the combustor's own gas-dynamic expansion — no separate pump or compressor supplies it.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/smith-1979-nasa-tm-79135"},{"id":"source:fuel-cell-handbook-2004","type":"book","title":"Fuel Cell Handbook (Seventh Edition)","authors":["EG&G Technical Services","Inc."],"year":2004,"venue":"U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, under contract DE-AM26-99FT40575, November 2004","url":"https://www.netl.doe.gov/sites/default/files/netl-file/FCHandbook7.pdf","notes":"Read (open NETL PDF, loop-3 pass 42), section 2.1–2.2. 'The ideal efficiency of a fuel cell, operating reversibly, is then η_ideal = ΔG/ΔH' (2-14); for H₂ + ½O₂ → H₂O(l) 'at standard conditions of 25 °C (298 K) and 1 atmosphere, the thermal energy (ΔH) in the hydrogen/oxygen reaction is 285.8 kJ/mole, and the free energy available for useful work is 237.1 kJ/mole. Thus, the thermal efficiency of an ideal fuel cell operating reversibly on pure hydrogen and oxygen at standard conditions is: η_ideal = 237.1/285.8 = 0.83' (2-17); 'for direct electrochemical oxidation of carbon ΔG is larger than ΔH, and consequently the ideal efficiency is slightly greater than 100 % when using this definition'. The ideal cell voltage at 1 atm, 25 °C is 1.229 V.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/fuel-cell-handbook-2004"},{"id":"source:zhu-long-ort-2010","type":"review","title":"Improving photosynthetic efficiency for greater yield","authors":["X.-G. Zhu","S. P. Long","D. R. Ort"],"year":2010,"venue":"Annual Review of Plant Biology 61, 235–261","doi":"10.1146/annurev-arplant-042809-112206","notes":"DOI verified on Crossref and the abstract read (loop-3 pass 42); cited as reference 7 of Blankenship et al. 2011 (read in full) for the physiology-limited maxima of 4.6 % (C3) and 6.0 % (C4) after known losses in light harvesting, overpotentials and respiration — the review's own pages are not yet read.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/zhu-long-ort-2010"},{"id":"source:nasa-grc-nozzle-design","type":"web","title":"Nozzle Design (Beginner's Guide to Aeronautics)","authors":["NASA Glenn Research Center"],"year":2024,"venue":"NASA Glenn Research Center, Beginner's Guide to Aeronautics; page dated 2021-08-06, modified 2024-09-12","url":"https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/beginners-guide-to-aeronautics/nozzle-design/","notes":"Read (loop-3 pass 43). 'A nozzle is a relatively simple device, just a specially shaped tube through which hot gases flow … In a CD nozzle, the hot exhaust leaves the combustion chamber and converges down to the minimum area, or throat, of the nozzle. The throat size is chosen to choke the flow and set the mass flow rate through the system. The flow in the throat is sonic … Downstream of the throat, the geometry diverges, and the flow is isentropically expanded to a supersonic Mach number that depends on the area ratio of the exit to the throat. Expansion of a supersonic flow causes the static pressure and temperature to decrease from the throat to the exit'; the derivation (1 − M²) dV/V = −dA/A from mass and momentum conservation with the isentropic relation.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/nasa-grc-nozzle-design"},{"id":"source:wu-2014-1kw-thermoacoustic-generator","type":"paper","title":"Investigation on a 1 kW traveling-wave thermoacoustic electrical generator","authors":["Zhanghua Wu","Limin Zhang","Wei Dai","Ercang Luo"],"year":2014,"venue":"Applied Energy 124, 140–147","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.02.063","notes":"Publisher abstract read in the owner's Chrome (Elsevier; the full text is paywalled), loop-3 pass 44: a 1 kW travelling-wave thermoacoustic electrical generator with a linear alternator; after the working frequency was lowered from 74 Hz to 64 Hz by charging 4.5 % mole fraction argon, 'a maximum electric power of 1043 W with a thermal-to-electrical efficiency of 17.7% and a maximum thermal-to-electrical efficiency of 19.8% with an electric power of 970 W were obtained'; 'a mean pressure of 4.0 MPa, a heating temperature of 650 °C and a cooling temperature of 15 °C'; the preliminary run gave 638 W at 16.6 %.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/wu-2014-1kw-thermoacoustic-generator"},{"id":"source:bi-2017-5kw-thermoacoustic-generator","type":"paper","title":"Development of a 5 kW traveling-wave thermoacoustic electric generator","authors":["Tianjiao Bi","Zhanghua Wu","Limin Zhang","Guoyao Yu","Ercang Luo","Wei Dai"],"year":2017,"venue":"Applied Energy 185, 1355–1361 (online December 2015)","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.12.034","notes":"Publisher abstract read in the owner's Chrome (Elsevier; the full text is paywalled), loop-3 pass 44: a three-stage travelling-wave thermoacoustic electric generator, units connected end-to-end by slim resonance tubes with a linear alternator as a bypass at the end of each; 'the maximum electric power of 4.69 kW with thermal-to-electric efficiency of 15.6% and the maximum thermal-to-electric efficiency of 18.4% with electric power of 3.46 kW were achieved with 6 MPa pressurized helium, 650 °C and 25 °C heating and cooling temperatures'.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/bi-2017-5kw-thermoacoustic-generator"},{"id":"source:migliore-2005-nrel-cp-500-38157","type":"report","title":"Balancing Performance, Noise, Cost, and Aesthetics in the Southwest Windpower 'Storm' Wind Turbine: Preprint","authors":["P. Migliore","J. Green","D. Calley","J. Lonjaret"],"year":2005,"venue":"NREL/CP-500-38157, August 2005; prepared for WindPower 2005, Denver","url":"https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy05osti/38157.pdf","notes":"Read in full (loop-3 pass 44; nrel.gov did not resolve from this machine, so the Internet Archive's copy of the same URL, captured 24/02/2025, was read). Power coefficient 'defined as the ratio of power converted by the turbine to that available in the wind'. Pre-prototype field tests of the Storm — a three-blade, downwind, variable-speed, stall-regulated turbine rated at 1.8 kW: 'Using field-test data of measured electrical power and dynamometer tests of alternator efficiency, the team deduced a peak rotor Cp ≈ 0.45. A combination of good blade aerodynamics and rotor speed control produced a broad, flat Cp curve with Cp ≈ 0.43 over a 4 m/s wind speed range'; Figure 13 'The pre-prototype rotor achieved a rotor power coefficient of approximately 0.45'; the summary calls the results preliminary, with definitive NWTC tests under way.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/migliore-2005-nrel-cp-500-38157"},{"id":"source:schneider-2017-monroe-hydro-doe","type":"report","title":"Development of a project on North Unit Irrigation District's Main Canal at the Monroe Drop, using a novel low-head hydropower technology called the SLH100","authors":["Abraham Schneider","Gia Schneider","Katherine McKinstry","Meghan Harwood"],"year":2017,"venue":"Natel Energy final report to the U.S. Department of Energy, award DE-EE0005420 (FOA DE-FOA-0000486, Advanced Hydropower Development); OSTI 1346739","doi":"10.2172/1346739","notes":"Read in full (loop-3 pass 44; osti.gov timed out from this machine, so the Internet Archive's copy of the OSTI PDF, captured 04/02/2025, was read). One SLH100 hydroEngine (linearly moving foils rather than a rotor) commissioned September 2015 at an existing drop on the NUID main canal, Madras, Oregon: 'The nameplate capacity of the SLH100 at the Monroe Hydro Project is 250 kW. The gross head ranges between 4.1 meters and 5.1 meters. The machine can pass a maximum flow of 331 cfs. The SLH100 hydroEngine has run at maximum power of 267 kW with water-to-wire plant efficiency of 60% (73% hydraulic efficiency), meeting design expectations.' The report gives no formula for either efficiency and does not state the grid-side boundary; expected annual generation 873 MWh, 40 % annual capacity factor (80 % over the irrigation season).","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/schneider-2017-monroe-hydro-doe"},{"id":"source:zhang-2025-sic-betavoltaic","type":"paper","title":"Optimal Selection and Experimental Verification of Wide-Bandgap Semiconductor for Betavoltaic Battery","authors":["Jiachen Zhang","Kunlun Lv","Yuan Yin","Yuqian Gao","Ye Tian","Yuncheng Han","Jun Tang"],"year":2025,"venue":"Nanomaterials 15(9), 635 (open access)","doi":"10.3390/nano15090635","notes":"Read in full from the MDPI article XML (loop-3 pass 44). Equation 1: the total efficiency η = P_max / P_in = I_sc·V_oc·FF / (A·E_ave·q), P_in the power of the isotope source (A its activity, E_ave the average particle energy); 'the total energy conversion efficiency (η) … can be divided into isotope source efficiency (η_s) and semiconductor device efficiency (η_d)'; η_s 'about 35% when the thickness of 63Ni is 500 nm with single-side emission'. 4H-SiC PIN devices measured under a ⁶³Ni source of 1 × 3 cm² active area and 15 mCi total activity: Table 3 — I_sc 2.91 nA, V_oc 1.41 V, FF 0.81, η_d 7.31 % (14.88 % under an electron beam); Table 4 — this work (SiC): V_oc 1.22–1.41 V, FF 0.81–0.89, η 2.34–2.56 %. The 7.31 % is the device stage only; the whole-battery figure is the 2.34–2.56 %.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/zhang-2025-sic-betavoltaic"},{"id":"source:kim-2026-c14-perovskite-betavoltaic","type":"paper","title":"Carbon-14 Perovskite Betavoltaics Reach Record 10.79% Efficiency","authors":["Hong Soo Kim","Ryan Rhee","Junho Lee","Muhammad Bilal Naseem","Jung Hwan Lee","Jong Hyeok Park","Su-Il In"],"year":2026,"venue":"Carbon Energy 8(5), e70149 (open access; first published 18 December 2025)","doi":"10.1002/cey2.70149","notes":"Main text and Supporting Information read in the owner's Chrome (loop-3 pass 44; the SI .docx was parsed in the page). 'The MACl-FAPbI3 device integrated with a 14C source (4.5 μCi) exhibits a Jsc of 10.60 nA cm−2, a Voc of 76.92 mV, a FF of 17.41, and an ECE of 10.79%'. SI Equation 1: η = P_max / P_source = J_sc × V_oc × FF / (E_avg × e × A), A = 0.0045 mCi per 1.0 cm² of active area, E_avg = 49.4 keV per decay for ¹⁴C, 1 Ci = 3.7 × 10¹⁰ decays/s; the worked values 0.142 nW / 1.316 nW ≅ 10.79 % — the denominator is the source's total decay power from its nominal activity, with no self-absorption correction. Stack FTO/SnO₂/MACl-FAPbI₃/Spiro-MeOTAD/¹⁴CNP/CQD/FTO; I–V by sourcemeter over −0.1 to +0.8 V; over 15 h continuous operation.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/kim-2026-c14-perovskite-betavoltaic"},{"id":"source:fountaine-2016-pec-limits","type":"paper","title":"Efficiency limits for photoelectrochemical water-splitting","authors":["Katherine T. Fountaine","Hans Joachim Lewerenz","Harry A. Atwater"],"year":2016,"venue":"Nature Communications 7, 13706 (open access)","doi":"10.1038/ncomms13706","notes":"Read in full (open Nature page and PDF, loop-3 pass 46). Ideal case (Table 1: absorption fraction 1, external radiative efficiency 1, catalytic exchange current densities infinite, series resistance 0, shunt resistance infinite; nine assumptions listed — AM1.5G, complete above-gap absorption, detailed-balance dark current with only radiative recombination, ideality 1, negligible catalytic overpotentials, charge-transfer coefficients 0.5, no series resistance, E_rxn = 1.23 V, unity Faradaic efficiency): 'The maximum single and dual junction efficiencies are 30.6% at a bandgap of 1.59 eV, and 40.0% with bandgaps of 0.52 and 1.40 eV, respectively'; the ideal triple junction maximum is 28.3 % — additional junctions add nothing because photovoltage beyond that needed to split water does not raise efficiency. Realistic cases: Real1 (high-performance materials: f_abs 0.9, ERE 0.03, j0,cat {1, 10⁻³} mA cm⁻² cathodic/anodic, r_s 0, r_sh ∞) η_max 15.1 % at 2.05 eV single junction and 28.3 % at 1.59 / 0.92 eV dual junction; Real2 (Earth-abundant: f_abs 0.9, ERE 10⁻⁶, j0,cat {1, 10⁻⁵}, r_s 0.1, r_sh 10, normalised resistivities) 5.4 % at 2.53 eV and 16.2 % at 1.93 / 1.38 eV — the paper's words are 'realistic limiting efficiencies', maxima of parameterised model cases.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/fountaine-2016-pec-limits"},{"id":"source:rozzi-2020-green-synthetic-fuels","type":"review","title":"Green Synthetic Fuels: Renewable Routes for the Conversion of Non-Fossil Feedstocks into Gaseous Fuels and Their End Uses","authors":["Elena Rozzi","Francesco Demetrio Minuto","Andrea Lanzini","Pierluigi Leone"],"year":2020,"venue":"Energies 13(2), 420 (open access review)","doi":"10.3390/en13020420","notes":"DOI verified on Crossref; Section 3.2.2 read on the MDPI full-text page in the owner's Chrome (loop-3 pass 47 close): 'The theoretical maximum efficiency of a single junction cell with a bandgap of 1.59 eV is 30.6% and increases to 40.0% for a dual junction device with bandgaps of 0.52 and 1.40 eV. The triple junction maximum efficiency is 28.3%, remarkably lower than dual junction efficiency [389]', reference 389 being Fountaine, Lewerenz & Atwater 2016. It restates the ideal single- and dual-junction limits and the ideal triple-junction figure only; it does not state Fountaine's realistic-case (Real1 / Real2) maxima, so it is evidence for the two ideal-limit claims and never for the benchmarks. Secondary evidence: it restates Fountaine's calculation, citing it, and is not an independent replication — the claims read established under the atlas's review-supported rule, nothing more.","review":{"canonical":true,"last_reviewed":null},"canonical_url":"https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/source/rozzi-2020-green-synthetic-fuels"}],"verification":{"source:seebeck-1826":{"verified":true,"checked_at":"2026-09-19T01:22:54.606Z","crossref_title":"Ueber die magnetische Polarisation der Metalle und Erze durch Temperatur‐Differenz"},"source:thomson-1851":{"verified":true,"checked_at":"2026-09-19T01:22:55.601Z","crossref_title":"4. On a Mechanical Theory of Thermo-Electric Currents"},"source:goldsmid-2016":{"verified":true,"checked_at":"2026-09-19T01:22:55.982Z","crossref_title":"Introduction to Thermoelectricity"},"source:snyder-toberer-2008":{"verified":true,"checked_at":"2026-09-19T01:22:56.363Z","crossref_title":"Complex thermoelectric materials"},"source:callen-1948":{"verified":true,"checked_at":"2026-09-19T01:22:56.749Z","crossref_title":"The Application of Onsager's Reciprocal Relations to Thermoelectric, Thermomagnetic, and Galvanomagnetic Effects"},"source:onsager-1931":{"verified":true,"checked_at":"2026-09-19T01:22:57.134Z","crossref_title":"Reciprocal Relations in Irreversible Processes. I."},"source:herring-1954":{"verified":true,"checked_at":"2026-09-19T01:22:57.515Z","crossref_title":"Theory of the Thermoelectric Power of Semiconductors"},"source:schwede-2010":{"verified":true,"checked_at":"2026-09-19T01:22:57.897Z","crossref_title":"Photon-enhanced thermionic emission for solar concentrator systems"},"source:swift-1988":{"verified":true,"checked_at":"2026-09-19T01:22:58.278Z","crossref_title":"Thermoacoustic engines"},"source:lang-2005":{"verified":true,"checked_at":"2026-09-19T01:22:58.660Z","crossref_title":"Pyroelectricity: From Ancient Curiosity to Modern Imaging Tool"},"source:bowen-2014-pyro":{"verified":true,"checked_at":"2026-09-19T01:22:59.040Z","crossref_title":"Pyroelectric materials and devices for energy harvesting applications"},"source:quickenden-mua-1995":{"verified":true,"checked_at":"2026-09-19T01:22:59.433Z","crossref_title":"A Review of Power Generation in Aqueous Thermogalvanic 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