Temperature gradient —drives→ Seebeck effect

Conditions

• a spatial temperature difference across a conductor or semiconductor
• a closed circuit of dissimilar materials, or a single material with ends at different temperatures

Constitutive relation

ΔV = S · ΔT

Open-circuit voltage between the ends of one conductor (absolute S) or across a couple of two conductors (S_A − S_B); ΔV and ΔT measured from the same reference end; S < 0 for electron-dominated transport, S > 0 for hole-dominated, so the polarity is material- and convention-dependent.

Evidence · 3

1. [1]
   T. J. Seebeck. Ueber die magnetische Polarisation der Metalle und Erze durch Temperatur-Differenz (1826)

   Annalen der Physik 82(2), 133–160 · doi:10.1002/andp.18260820202 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
2. [2]
   H. J. Goldsmid. Introduction to Thermoelectricity (2nd ed.) (2016)

   Springer Series in Materials Science 121 · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-49256-7 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
3. [3]
   H. B. Callen. The application of Onsager's reciprocal relations to thermoelectric, thermomagnetic, and galvanomagnetic effects (1948)

   Physical Review 73, 1349 · doi:10.1103/PhysRev.73.1349 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record

Matrix cells this relation feeds

D = disequilibrium row · C = coupling family column. A cell reads the state of the atlas for that pair.

Uses of this claim

• Thermoelectric generatorcommercial · 3 steps
• Night-time radiative-cooling thermoelectric generatordemonstrated · 5 steps
• Radioisotope thermoelectric generatorcommercial · 7 steps

• Chemical potential difference → Combustion → Temperature gradient → Seebeck effect → Charge carriers → Electrical work5/5 established · extends a recorded pathway
• Electric potential difference → Peltier effect → Temperature gradient → Seebeck effect → Charge carriers → Electrical work5/5 established · same energy form
• Electric potential difference → Ettingshausen effect → Temperature gradient → Seebeck effect → Charge carriers → Electrical work5/5 established · same energy form
• Incident radiation flux → Photothermal absorption → Temperature gradient → Seebeck effect → Charge carriers → Electrical work5/5 established · extends a recorded pathway
• Nuclear binding-energy difference → Nuclear fission → Temperature gradient → Seebeck effect → Charge carriers → Electrical work5/5 established · extends a recorded pathway
• Nuclear binding-energy difference → Nuclear fusion → Temperature gradient → Seebeck effect → Charge carriers → Electrical work3/5 established · extends a recorded pathway
• Nuclear binding-energy difference → Radioactive decay → Beta particles → Radioisotope heating → Temperature gradient → Seebeck effect → Charge carriers → Electrical work7/7 established · extends a recorded pathway

Cite this claim

Physical Transformation Atlas (2026). claim claim:seebeck-drives: Temperature gradient —drives→ Seebeck effect. Dataset revision rbfbfcbb70e57 (hash of the canonical data). https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/claim/seebeck-drives

Ids and matrix addresses are stable across revisions; the revision hash identifies the exact canonical files the record was compiled from and is meta.data_hash in every /api export. Reuse terms: see the license field in any export.