Nuclear binding-energy difference → Electrical work

Matrix context

D = disequilibrium row · C = coupling family column. A cell reads the state of the atlas for that pair.

D.20 × C.27 · Nuclear binding-energy difference × Nuclear heatfamily: Nuclear heatD.20 × C.21 · Nuclear binding-energy difference × Electrochemicalfamily: Electrochemical

Typed bounds on this route

Every limit the atlas holds for this route, as constraint records: reached through bounded_by claims on the route's own entities. Hard bounds (an upper bound or a formula) decide the thermodynamic-bound check above; benchmarks, constitutive relations and resource limits are listed and never decisive. No prose limit exists anywhere (pass 42).

• Carnot limit · formula-bound · hard, applies to this route
  η ≤ 1 − T_c/T_h for any heat engine between reservoirs at T_h and T_c

Steps

1. 01
   Nuclear binding-energy difference —drives→ Radioactive decayestablishedclaim record

   nuclear → nuclear

   radioisotope required

   refs [1]
2. 02
   Radioactive decay —produces→ Alpha particlesestablishedclaim record

   nuclear → nuclear

   • alpha emitters such as Pu-238, Am-241, Po-210

   refs [1] [2]
3. 03
   Alpha particles —drives→ Radioisotope heatingestablishedclaim record

   nuclear → thermal

   • alpha particles stopped within the source pellet and its cladding (the RTG case)

   radioisotope required

   refs [1]
4. 04
   Radioisotope heating —produces→ Temperature gradientestablishedclaim record

   thermal → thermal

   refs [1]
5. 05
   Temperature gradient —drives→ Alkali-metal thermal-to-electric conversiondemonstratedclaim record

   thermal → electrical · loss to thermal

   • sodium at 900–1300 K on the hot side of a β″-alumina electrolyte and a condenser at 400–700 K

   above ~700 K · liquid

   refs [3]
6. 06
   Alkali-metal thermal-to-electric conversion —produces→ Ionic currentdemonstratedclaim record

   electrical → electrical

   refs [3]
7. 07
   Ionic current —converts into→ Electrical workestablishedclaim record

   electrical → electrical · loss to thermal

   • electrodes exchange the ionic current for an electronic current through the external load

   refs [4]

Evidence for the complete composition · 0

No source on record for this exact composition. The sources below support the individual steps, not the route as a whole.

Evidence for the constituent relations · 4

1. [1]
   M. A. Prelas, et al.. A review of nuclear batteries (2014)

   Progress in Nuclear Energy 75, 117–148 · doi:10.1016/j.pnucene.2014.04.007 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
2. [2]
   M. G. Spencer, T. Alam. High power direct energy conversion by nuclear batteries (2019)

   Applied Physics Reviews 6, 031305 · doi:10.1063/1.5123163 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-20 · record
3. [3]
   T. Cole. Thermoelectric energy conversion with solid electrolytes (1983)

   Science 221, 915–920 · doi:10.1126/science.221.4614.915 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
4. [4]
   A. J. Bard, L. R. Faulkner. Electrochemical Methods: Fundamentals and Applications (2nd ed.) (2001)

   Wiley · book, no DOI · record