Physical Transformation AtlasPTA
Disequilibrium · disequilibrium:radiation-flux

Incident radiation flux

Photons arriving from a hotter source, above all the Sun. Absorbable in one step into heat, charge, or chemical bonds.

symbol GOptics and photonicsenergy form radiativeexergy positivealso: sunlight, solar irradiance, illumination, incident photons

Atlas record: 12 claims reference this disequilibrium — 10 established, 1 demonstrated and 1 reported.

Explorerelations · matrix context · routes · sources · cite

conditions: illumination required
12claims74enumerated routes8routes with complete-composition evidence23candidate routes not searched22cited sources

Relations

drives · 12
Incident radiation flux—drives→Radiation pressureestablished
  • radiation absorbed or reflected by a surface; force per unit area I/c absorbed, 2I/c reflected at normal incidence — about 9 µPa in full sunlight
  • mechanical work requires displacement or deformation under the radiation-pressure force; absorbed optical power may additionally thermalise, perfect reflection dissipates nothing
Solar sails (IKAROS 2010, LightSail 2 2019) convert this momentum flux into spacecraft kinetic energy in flight.
Incident radiation flux—drives→Photon drag effectestablished
  • absorbed or redirected radiation in a semiconductor or thin metal film supporting photon drag; the longitudinal response scales with the optical drive while its polarity is material- and interface-dependent
Incident radiation flux—drives→Photo-Dember effectestablished
  • non-uniform above-gap illumination of a semiconductor with a large electron–hole mobility difference (InAs, InSb); pulsed excitation gives the transient current used for terahertz emission, steady illumination a Dember photovoltage
Incident radiation flux—drives→Photovoltaic effectestablished
  • photon energy above the band gap of the absorber
  • a p–n junction or other asymmetry to separate the carriers before they recombine
J_sc = R · G · spectral responsivity R [A/W]
Incident radiation flux—drives→Bulk photovoltaic effectestablished
  • a homogeneous non-centrosymmetric crystal under uniform illumination; no junction
Incident radiation flux—drives→Photothermal absorptionestablished
  • an absorber with high solar absorptance; selective surfaces suppress re-emission
Incident radiation flux—drives→Photoelectric effectestablished
  • photon energy above the work function of the emitter; a vacuum gap to a collector
Incident radiation flux—drives→Photon-enhanced thermionic emissiondemonstrated
  • concentrated sunlight on a semiconductor cathode held at several hundred °C in vacuum
Incident radiation flux—drives→Photoelectrochemical effectestablished
  • a semiconductor photoelectrode whose band edges straddle the water redox potentials, in an electrolyte, under illumination
Incident radiation flux—drives→Photosynthesisestablished
  • photosynthetically active radiation (400–700 nm), water, CO₂, temperatures roughly 0–45 °C
Incident radiation flux—drives→Antenna receptionestablished
  • radio- or microwave-frequency radiation and an antenna resonant at that frequency
Incident radiation flux—drives→Photostrictionreported

Matrix context

D = disequilibrium row · C = coupling family column. A cell reads the state of the atlas for that pair.

C.01 ThermoelectricC.02 ThermionicC.03 ThermoacousticC.04 PyroelectricC.05 ThermogalvanicC.06 ThermomagneticC.07 ThermophotovoltaicC.08 Heat engine (thermomechanical)C.09 Caloric (magneto/electro/elasto)C.10 PiezoelectricC.11 FlexoelectricC.12 TriboelectricC.13 Electrostatic (variable capacitance)C.14 Electromagnetic inductionC.15 MagnetostrictiveC.16 MagnetoelectricC.17 Spin caloritronicC.18 PhotovoltaicC.19 PhotoelectrochemicalC.20 PhotothermalC.21 ElectrochemicalC.22 Osmotic / salinity-gradientC.23 ElectrokineticC.24 TurbomachineryC.25 MagnetohydrodynamicC.26 RadiovoltaicC.27 Nuclear heatC.28 RectennaC.29 ThermochemicalC.30 BiologicalC.31 Fluctuation / information-drivenC.32 Photon momentumC.33 ThermodiffusiveC.34 MarangoniC.35 AcoustoelectricC.36 PhotodiffusiveC.37 Thermo-osmoticC.38 ElectrohydrodynamicC.39 RadioluminescentC.40 Thermopolarization

Enumerated routes through this · 74 (showing 24)

Cited sources · 22

  1. [1]
    E. F. Nichols, G. F. Hull. A Preliminary Communication on the Pressure of Heat and Light Radiation (1901)
    Physical Review (Series I) 13, 307-320 · doi:10.1103/PhysRevSeriesI.13.307 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-20 · record
  2. [2]
    A. C. Trowbridge, E. M. Wright, K. Dholakia. Radiation pressure revisited: historical context and the role of structured light (2025)
    Journal of Optics 27, 075402 · doi:10.1088/2040-8986/ade8fb · crossref ✓ 2026-09-20 · record
  3. [3]
    L. D. Landau, E. M. Lifshitz, L. P. Pitaevskii. Electrodynamics of Continuous Media (Course of Theoretical Physics, Vol. 8, 2nd ed.) (1984)
    Pergamon · book, no DOI · record
  4. [4]
    A. F. Gibson, M. F. Kimmitt, A. C. Walker. Photon drag in germanium (1970)
    Applied Physics Letters 17, 75-77 · doi:10.1063/1.1653315 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-20 · record
  5. [5]
    J. H. Strait et al.. Revisiting the Photon-Drag Effect in Metal Films (2019)
    Physical Review Letters 123, 053903 · doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.123.053903 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-20 · record
  6. [6]
    M. B. Johnston et al.. Simulation of terahertz generation at semiconductor surfaces (2002)
    Physical Review B 65, 165301 · doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.65.165301 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-20 · record
  7. [7]
    V. Apostolopoulos, M. E. Barnes. THz emitters based on the photo-Dember effect (2014)
    Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 47, 374002 · doi:10.1088/0022-3727/47/37/374002 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-20 · record
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    J. F. Schetzina. Steady-state transport in trap-dominated relaxation semiconductors (1975)
    Physical Review B 11, 4994–4998 · doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.11.4994 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-20 · record
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    A. E. Becquerel. Mémoire sur les effets électriques produits sous l'influence des rayons solaires (1839)
    Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences 9, 561–567 · paper, no DOI · record
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    D. M. Chapin, C. S. Fuller, G. L. Pearson. A new silicon p-n junction photocell for converting solar radiation into electrical power (1954)
    Journal of Applied Physics 25, 676–677 · doi:10.1063/1.1721711 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
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    W. Shockley, H. J. Queisser. Detailed balance limit of efficiency of p-n junction solar cells (1961)
    Journal of Applied Physics 32, 510–519 · doi:10.1063/1.1736034 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
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    V. M. Fridkin. Review of recent work on the bulk photovoltaic effect in ferro and piezoelectrics (1984)
    Ferroelectrics 53, 169–187 · doi:10.1080/00150198408245047 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
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    J. E. Spanier, et al.. Power conversion efficiency exceeding the Shockley–Queisser limit in a ferroelectric insulator (2016)
    Nature Photonics 10, 611–616 · doi:10.1038/nphoton.2016.143 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
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    A. Bejan. Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics (4th ed.) (2016)
    Wiley · doi:10.1002/9781119245964 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
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    P. T. Landsberg, G. Tonge. Thermodynamic energy conversion efficiencies (1980)
    Journal of Applied Physics 51, R1–R20 · doi:10.1063/1.328187 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
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    C. Kittel. Introduction to Solid State Physics (8th ed.) (2005)
    Wiley · book, no DOI · record
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    J. W. Schwede, et al.. Photon-enhanced thermionic emission for solar concentrator systems (2010)
    Nature Materials 9, 762–767 · doi:10.1038/nmat2814 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
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    A. Fujishima, K. Honda. Electrochemical photolysis of water at a semiconductor electrode (1972)
    Nature 238, 37–38 · doi:10.1038/238037a0 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
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    M. Grätzel. Photoelectrochemical cells (2001)
    Nature 414, 338–344 · doi:10.1038/35104607 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
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    R. E. Blankenship, et al.. Comparing photosynthetic and photovoltaic efficiencies and recognizing the potential for improvement (2011)
    Science 332, 805–809 · doi:10.1126/science.1200165 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
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    R. E. Blankenship. Molecular Mechanisms of Photosynthesis (2nd ed.) (2014)
    Wiley-Blackwell · book, no DOI · record
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    IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques 32, 1230–1242 · doi:10.1109/TMTT.1984.1132833 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record

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