Photovoltaic module

Matrix context

D = disequilibrium row · C = coupling family column. A cell reads the state of the atlas for that pair.

D.11 × C.18 · Incident radiation flux × Photovoltaicfamily: Photovoltaic

Measured or reported performance

1. confirmed module efficiency (crystalline silicon)24.7 ± 0.3 %module2024
   Maxeon 112-cell crystalline-silicon module, 17,806 cm² designated area, V_oc 83.04 V, I_sc 6.384 A, fill factor 82.9 %, NREL 4/23 — Table 4 of Green et al. 2024 (Version 63); the multijunction module record in the same table is 32.65 ± 0.7 % (Sharp InGaP/GaAs/InGaAs, 965 cm²)
   refs [5]

best recorded efficiency (derived)

24.7% — confirmed module efficiency (crystalline silicon), module, 2024; derived from the structured data above, not a stored number

Typed bounds on this route

Every limit the atlas holds for this route, as constraint records: reached through bounded_by claims on the route's own entities. Hard bounds (an upper bound or a formula) decide the thermodynamic-bound check above; benchmarks, constitutive relations and resource limits are listed and never decisive. No prose limit exists anywhere (pass 42).

• Shockley–Queisser limit · upper-bound · hard, applies to this route
  η ≤ 33.7% for a single p–n junction under unconcentrated AM1.5 sunlight
• Landsberg limit · formula-bound · hard, applies to this route
  η ≤ 1 − (4/3)(T_c/T_s) + (1/3)(T_c/T_s)⁴ for conversion of blackbody radiation at T_s with a sink at T_c; 93.3 % at 6000 K / 300 K

Steps

1. 01
   Incident radiation flux —drives→ Photovoltaic effectestablishedclaim record

   radiative → electronic-excitation · loss to thermal

   J_sc = R · G · spectral responsivity R [A/W]

   • photon energy above the band gap of the absorber
   • a p–n junction or other asymmetry to separate the carriers before they recombine

   solid · semiconductor required · illumination required

   refs [1] [2] [3]
2. 02
   Photovoltaic effect —produces→ Electron–hole pairsestablishedclaim record

   electronic-excitation → electronic-excitation · loss to thermal

   refs [3] [4] [5]
3. 03
   Electron–hole pairs —converts into→ Electrical workestablishedclaim record

   electronic-excitation → electrical · loss to thermal

   • the junction field separates the pair and the carriers reach the contacts before recombining

   solid · semiconductor required

   refs [3] [4]

Evidence for the complete composition · 3

1. [2]
   D. M. Chapin, C. S. Fuller, G. L. Pearson. A new silicon p-n junction photocell for converting solar radiation into electrical power (1954)

   Journal of Applied Physics 25, 676–677 · doi:10.1063/1.1721711 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
2. [3]
   W. Shockley, H. J. Queisser. Detailed balance limit of efficiency of p-n junction solar cells (1961)

   Journal of Applied Physics 32, 510–519 · doi:10.1063/1.1736034 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
3. [5]
   M. A. Green, et al.. Solar cell efficiency tables (Version 63) (2024)

   Progress in Photovoltaics 32, 3–13 · doi:10.1002/pip.3750 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record

Evidence for the constituent relations · 5

1. [1]
   A. E. Becquerel. Mémoire sur les effets électriques produits sous l'influence des rayons solaires (1839)

   Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences 9, 561–567 · paper, no DOI · record
2. [2]
   D. M. Chapin, C. S. Fuller, G. L. Pearson. A new silicon p-n junction photocell for converting solar radiation into electrical power (1954)

   Journal of Applied Physics 25, 676–677 · doi:10.1063/1.1721711 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
3. [3]
   W. Shockley, H. J. Queisser. Detailed balance limit of efficiency of p-n junction solar cells (1961)

   Journal of Applied Physics 32, 510–519 · doi:10.1063/1.1736034 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
4. [4]
   C. Kittel. Introduction to Solid State Physics (8th ed.) (2005)

   Wiley · book, no DOI · record
5. [5]
   M. A. Green, et al.. Solar cell efficiency tables (Version 63) (2024)

   Progress in Photovoltaics 32, 3–13 · doi:10.1002/pip.3750 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record