Thermoacoustic triboelectric harvester

Matrix context

D = disequilibrium row · C = coupling family column. A cell reads the state of the atlas for that pair.

D.01 × C.03 · Temperature gradient × Thermoacousticfamily: ThermoacousticD.01 × C.12 · Temperature gradient × Triboelectricfamily: Triboelectric

Measured or reported performance

1. electrical power (peak)0.49 mWlaboratory2026
   piston-assisted thermoacoustic engine driving a honeycomb freestanding contact-separation triboelectric nanogenerator at an 80 MΩ load; stable oscillation at heating temperatures around 150 °C
   refs [2]
2. operating temperature≈ 150 °C heatinglaboratory2026
   the heating temperature at which the engine's self-sustained oscillation is stable — storage observed separately, not recorded as power: four stacked units charged 1 μF to 17.05 V in 10 s and, with power management, ran a wireless temperature sensor
   refs [2]

Typed bounds on this route

Every limit the atlas holds for this route, as constraint records: reached through bounded_by claims on the route's own entities. Hard bounds (an upper bound or a formula) decide the thermodynamic-bound check above; benchmarks, constitutive relations and resource limits are listed and never decisive. No prose limit exists anywhere (pass 42).

• Carnot limit · formula-bound · hard, applies to this route
  η ≤ 1 − T_c/T_h for any heat engine between reservoirs at T_h and T_c

Steps

1. 01
   Temperature gradient —drives→ Thermoacoustic effectestablishedclaim record

   thermal → acoustic · loss to thermal

   |∇T_crit| = β T_m ω |p₁| / (ρ_m c_p |u₁|); prime-mover onset requires |∇T| > |∇T_crit| · critical-gradient factor β T_m ω/(ρ_m c_p u₁) [K/(Pa·m)]

   p₁ and u₁ are the local first-order acoustic pressure and particle-velocity amplitudes; β is the volumetric thermal expansion coefficient (β T_m ≈ 1 for an ideal gas); this is the linear short-stack / standing-wave criterion of Swift 1988 — above the critical gradient the stack amplifies the wave, below it the same interaction pumps heat — not a closed-form performance law for every travelling-wave regenerator.

   • temperature gradient along the stack steeper than the critical gradient set by the acoustic pressure and displacement amplitudes
   • a resonant gas column

   gas · temperature gradient required

   refs [1]
2. 02
   Thermoacoustic effect —produces→ Acoustic waveestablishedclaim record

   acoustic → acoustic

   gas

   refs [1]
3. 03
   Acoustic wave —drives→ Triboelectric effectdemonstratedclaim record

   acoustic → electrical · loss to thermal

   • the acoustic pressure oscillation is mechanically coupled through a movable piston, diaphragm, rolling element or liquid interface so that the triboelectric surfaces undergo repeated contact–separation or sliding motion

   refs [2]
4. 04
   Triboelectric effect —produces→ Separated surface chargeestablishedclaim record

   electrical → electrical

   refs [3] [4]
5. 05
   Separated surface charge —converts into→ Electrical workestablishedclaim record

   electrical → electrical · loss to thermal

   • electrodes on the charged surfaces connected through a load

   refs [5]

Evidence for the complete composition · 1

1. [2]
   Y. Li et al.. High-temperature energy harvesting via thermoacoustic-triboelectric hybridization: Design, modelling, and application demonstration (2026)

   Nano Energy 155, 112082 · doi:10.1016/j.nanoen.2026.112082 · record

Evidence for the constituent relations · 5

1. [1]
   G. W. Swift. Thermoacoustic engines (1988)

   Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 84, 1145–1180 · doi:10.1121/1.396617 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
2. [2]
   Y. Li et al.. High-temperature energy harvesting via thermoacoustic-triboelectric hybridization: Design, modelling, and application demonstration (2026)

   Nano Energy 155, 112082 · doi:10.1016/j.nanoen.2026.112082 · record
3. [3]
   F.-R. Fan, Z.-Q. Tian, Z. L. Wang. Flexible triboelectric generator (2012)

   Nano Energy 1, 328–334 · doi:10.1016/j.nanoen.2012.01.004 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
4. [4]
   D. J. Lacks, T. Shinbrot. Long-standing and unresolved issues in triboelectric charging (2019)

   Nature Reviews Chemistry 3, 465–476 · doi:10.1038/s41570-019-0115-1 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
5. [5]
   H. B. Radousky, H. Liang. Energy harvesting: an integrated view of materials, devices and applications (2012)

   Nanotechnology 23, 502001 · doi:10.1088/0957-4484/23/50/502001 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record