Capacitive mixing cell

Matrix context

D = disequilibrium row · C = coupling family column. A cell reads the state of the atlas for that pair.

D.04 × C.22 · Salinity gradient × Osmotic / salinity-gradientfamily: Osmotic / salinity-gradient

Typed bounds on this route

Every limit the atlas holds for this route, as constraint records: reached through bounded_by claims on the route's own entities. Hard bounds (an upper bound or a formula) decide the thermodynamic-bound check above; benchmarks, constitutive relations and resource limits are listed and never decisive. No prose limit exists anywhere (pass 42).

• Free energy of mixing · resource-bound · listed, never decisive
  W ≤ −ΔG_mix ≈ 0.8 kWh per m³ of fresh water into seawater

Steps

1. 01
   Salinity gradient —drives→ Capacitive mixingdemonstratedclaim record

   chemical → electrical · loss to thermal

   • porous carbon electrodes charged in salt water and discharged in fresh water in a four-step cycle

   aqueous medium required · liquid

   One primary experiment on record in this atlas; later replications exist in the literature but are not yet recorded here.

   refs [1]
2. 02
   Capacitive mixing —produces→ Ionic currentdemonstratedclaim record

   electrical → electrical

   refs [1]
3. 03
   Ionic current —converts into→ Electrical workestablishedclaim record

   electrical → electrical · loss to thermal

   • electrodes exchange the ionic current for an electronic current through the external load

   refs [2]

Evidence for the complete composition · 1

1. [1]
   D. Brogioli. Extracting renewable energy from a salinity difference using a capacitor (2009)

   Physical Review Letters 103, 058501 · doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.103.058501 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record

Evidence for the constituent relations · 2

1. [1]
   D. Brogioli. Extracting renewable energy from a salinity difference using a capacitor (2009)

   Physical Review Letters 103, 058501 · doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.103.058501 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
2. [2]
   A. J. Bard, L. R. Faulkner. Electrochemical Methods: Fundamentals and Applications (2nd ed.) (2001)

   Wiley · book, no DOI · record