Electron–hole pairs —converts into→ Electrical work

Conditions

• the junction field separates the pair and the carriers reach the contacts before recombining

Evidence · 2

1. [1]
   W. Shockley, H. J. Queisser. Detailed balance limit of efficiency of p-n junction solar cells (1961)

   Journal of Applied Physics 32, 510–519 · doi:10.1063/1.1736034 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
2. [2]
   C. Kittel. Introduction to Solid State Physics (8th ed.) (2005)

   Wiley · book, no DOI · record

Uses of this claim

• Combustion-driven micro-thermophotovoltaic generatordemonstrated · 7 steps
• Radioluminescent (beta-photovoltaic) nuclear batterydemonstrated · 7 steps
• Thermophotovoltaic conversiondemonstrated · 5 steps
• Photovoltaic modulecommercial · 3 steps
• Betavoltaic batterycommercial · 5 steps

• Nuclear binding-energy difference → Radioactive decay → Alpha particles → Alphavoltaic effect → Electron–hole pairs → Electrical work5/5 established · candidate
• Chemical potential difference → Combustion → Temperature gradient → Thermal emission → Photons → Photovoltaic effect → Electron–hole pairs → Electrical work7/7 established · extends a recorded pathway
• Electric potential difference → Peltier effect → Temperature gradient → Thermal emission → Photons → Photovoltaic effect → Electron–hole pairs → Electrical work7/7 established · same energy form
• Electric potential difference → Ettingshausen effect → Temperature gradient → Thermal emission → Photons → Photovoltaic effect → Electron–hole pairs → Electrical work7/7 established · same energy form
• Incident radiation flux → Photothermal absorption → Temperature gradient → Thermal emission → Photons → Photovoltaic effect → Electron–hole pairs → Electrical work7/7 established · extends a recorded pathway
• Radiative imbalance with the sky → Radiative sky cooling → Temperature gradient → Thermal emission → Photons → Photovoltaic effect → Electron–hole pairs → Electrical work7/7 established · extends a recorded pathway
• Nuclear binding-energy difference → Radioactive decay → Alpha particles → Radioluminescence → Photons → Photovoltaic effect → Electron–hole pairs → Electrical work7/7 established · extends a recorded pathway
• Nuclear binding-energy difference → Nuclear fission → Temperature gradient → Thermal emission → Photons → Photovoltaic effect → Electron–hole pairs → Electrical work7/7 established · extends a recorded pathway
• Nuclear binding-energy difference → Nuclear fission → Hot gas → Thermal emission → Photons → Photovoltaic effect → Electron–hole pairs → Electrical work7/7 established · extends a recorded pathway
• Nuclear binding-energy difference → Nuclear fusion → Temperature gradient → Thermal emission → Photons → Photovoltaic effect → Electron–hole pairs → Electrical work5/7 established · extends a recorded pathway

Cite this claim

Physical Transformation Atlas (2026). claim claim:pairs-convert-electricity: Electron–hole pairs —converts into→ Electrical work. Dataset revision rbfbfcbb70e57 (hash of the canonical data). https://physical-transformation-atlas.wldud5192.workers.dev/claim/pairs-convert-electricity

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