Betavoltaic battery

Matrix context

D = disequilibrium row · C = coupling family column. A cell reads the state of the atlas for that pair.

D.20 × C.26 · Nuclear binding-energy difference × Radiovoltaicfamily: Radiovoltaic

Measured or reported performance

1. energy conversion efficiency of a ¹⁴C perovskite betavoltaic cell10.79%device2026
   FTO/SnO₂/MACl-FAPbI₃/Spiro-MeOTAD/¹⁴C-nanoparticle/CQD/FTO cell; J_sc 10.60 nA cm⁻², V_oc 76.92 mV, FF 17.41 %; I–V by sourcemeter over −0.1 to +0.8 V; over 15 h of continuous operation
   refs [5]
2. total energy conversion efficiency of the 4H-SiC betavoltaics under a ⁶³Ni source2.34–2.56%device2025
   4H-SiC PIN devices under a ⁶³Ni source of 1 × 3 cm² active area and 15 mCi total activity; V_oc 1.22–1.41 V, FF 0.81–0.89
   refs [6]
3. semiconductor device efficiency η_d of the best 4H-SiC device under ⁶³Ni7.31%device2025
   I_sc 2.91 nA, V_oc 1.41 V, FF 0.81 under the 15 mCi ⁶³Ni source (Table 3); 14.88 % for the same device under an electron beam
   refs [6]

best recorded efficiency (derived)

10.8% — energy conversion efficiency of a ¹⁴C perovskite betavoltaic cell, device, 2026; derived from the structured data above, not a stored number

reported range

2.34–2.56% — total energy conversion efficiency of the 4H-SiC betavoltaics under a ⁶³Ni source, device, 2025; an aggregate the source reports over its devices, never a single record (its upper end is not a best)

Steps

1. 01
   Nuclear binding-energy difference —drives→ Radioactive decayestablishedclaim record

   nuclear → nuclear

   radioisotope required

   refs [1]
2. 02
   Radioactive decay —produces→ Beta particlesestablishedclaim record

   nuclear → nuclear

   • beta emitters such as tritium, Ni-63, Pm-147, Sr-90

   refs [1]
3. 03
   Beta particles —drives→ Betavoltaic effectestablishedclaim record

   nuclear → electronic-excitation · loss to thermal

   • a beta source (tritium, Ni-63, Pm-147) on or in a semiconductor junction; particle energy below the lattice-damage threshold

   solid · semiconductor required · radioisotope required

   refs [2] [1]
4. 04
   Betavoltaic effect —produces→ Electron–hole pairsestablishedclaim record

   electronic-excitation → electronic-excitation

   refs [2] [1]
5. 05
   Electron–hole pairs —converts into→ Electrical workestablishedclaim record

   electronic-excitation → electrical · loss to thermal

   • the junction field separates the pair and the carriers reach the contacts before recombining

   solid · semiconductor required

   refs [3] [4]

Evidence for the complete composition · 4

1. [2]
   P. Rappaport. The electron-voltaic effect in p-n junctions induced by beta-particle bombardment (1954)

   Physical Review 93, 246 · doi:10.1103/PhysRev.93.246.2 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
2. [1]
   M. A. Prelas, et al.. A review of nuclear batteries (2014)

   Progress in Nuclear Energy 75, 117–148 · doi:10.1016/j.pnucene.2014.04.007 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
3. [5]
   Hong Soo Kim et al.. Carbon-14 Perovskite Betavoltaics Reach Record 10.79% Efficiency (2026)

   Carbon Energy 8(5), e70149 (open access; first published 18 December 2025) · doi:10.1002/cey2.70149 · record
4. [6]
   Jiachen Zhang et al.. Optimal Selection and Experimental Verification of Wide-Bandgap Semiconductor for Betavoltaic Battery (2025)

   Nanomaterials 15(9), 635 (open access) · doi:10.3390/nano15090635 · record

Evidence for the constituent relations · 4

1. [1]
   M. A. Prelas, et al.. A review of nuclear batteries (2014)

   Progress in Nuclear Energy 75, 117–148 · doi:10.1016/j.pnucene.2014.04.007 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
2. [2]
   P. Rappaport. The electron-voltaic effect in p-n junctions induced by beta-particle bombardment (1954)

   Physical Review 93, 246 · doi:10.1103/PhysRev.93.246.2 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
3. [3]
   W. Shockley, H. J. Queisser. Detailed balance limit of efficiency of p-n junction solar cells (1961)

   Journal of Applied Physics 32, 510–519 · doi:10.1063/1.1736034 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
4. [4]
   C. Kittel. Introduction to Solid State Physics (8th ed.) (2005)

   Wiley · book, no DOI · record