Combustion-driven micro-thermophotovoltaic generator

Matrix context

D = disequilibrium row · C = coupling family column. A cell reads the state of the atlas for that pair.

D.05 × C.29 · Chemical potential difference × Thermochemicalfamily: ThermochemicalD.05 × C.07 · Chemical potential difference × Thermophotovoltaicfamily: ThermophotovoltaicD.05 × C.18 · Chemical potential difference × Photovoltaicfamily: Photovoltaic

Measured or reported performance

1. heat-to-electricity efficiency2.5 %laboratory2013
   propane microcombustor at up to 800 °C; photonic-crystal selective emitter; four 0.55 eV GaInAsSb cells with maximum-power-point tracking; the simplified system predicted at 2.7 %
   refs [7]
2. electrical power density344 mW over 1 cm²laboratory2013
   the same run; 13.7 W thermal input
   refs [7]

best recorded power density (derived)

344 mW over 1 cm² per active device area — electrical power density, laboratory, 2013; electric power per emitter/cell area

best recorded efficiency (derived)

2.5% — heat-to-electricity efficiency, laboratory, 2013; derived from the structured data above, not a stored number

Typed bounds on this route

Every limit the atlas holds for this route, as constraint records: reached through bounded_by claims on the route's own entities. Hard bounds (an upper bound or a formula) decide the thermodynamic-bound check above; benchmarks, constitutive relations and resource limits are listed and never decisive. No prose limit exists anywhere (pass 42).

• Visible-band fraction of thermal emission · formula-bound · hard, filtered out by its applicability
  η_vis ≤ ∫₃₈₀ⁿᵐ⁷⁸⁰ⁿᵐ B_λ(λ, T) dλ / σT⁴ — the share of a thermal emitter's radiated power that Planck's distribution places in the visible band at the emitter temperature
• Shockley–Queisser limit · upper-bound · hard, filtered out by its applicability
  η ≤ 33.7% for a single p–n junction under unconcentrated AM1.5 sunlight
• Landsberg limit · formula-bound · hard, filtered out by its applicability
  η ≤ 1 − (4/3)(T_c/T_s) + (1/3)(T_c/T_s)⁴ for conversion of blackbody radiation at T_s with a sink at T_c; 93.3 % at 6000 K / 300 K

Steps

1. 01
   Chemical potential difference —drives→ Combustionestablishedclaim record

   chemical → thermal · loss to radiative

   • fuel, oxidiser and an ignition source; flame temperature 1500–2500 K

   gas · above ~700 K

   refs [1]
2. 02
   Combustion —produces→ Hot gasestablishedclaim record

   thermal → thermal

   refs [1]
3. 03
   Hot gas —drives→ Thermal emissionestablishedclaim record

   thermal → radiative

   • a flame or a heated emitter radiating

   refs [2] [1]
4. 04
   Thermal emission —produces→ Photonsestablishedclaim record

   radiative → radiative

   refs [3] [1]
5. 05
   Photons —drives→ Photovoltaic effectestablishedclaim record

   radiative → electronic-excitation · loss to thermal

   • photons from any source, including a thermal emitter, absorbed above the gap

   solid · semiconductor required

   refs [2] [4]
6. 06
   Photovoltaic effect —produces→ Electron–hole pairsestablishedclaim record

   electronic-excitation → electronic-excitation · loss to thermal

   refs [4] [5] [6]
7. 07
   Electron–hole pairs —converts into→ Electrical workestablishedclaim record

   electronic-excitation → electrical · loss to thermal

   • the junction field separates the pair and the carriers reach the contacts before recombining

   solid · semiconductor required

   refs [4] [5]

Evidence for the complete composition · 1

1. [7]
   W. R. Chan et al.. Toward high-energy-density, high-efficiency, and moderate-temperature chip-scale thermophotovoltaics (2013)

   Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110(14), 5309–5314 · doi:10.1073/pnas.1301004110 · record

Evidence for the constituent relations · 6

1. [1]
   A. Bejan. Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics (4th ed.) (2016)

   Wiley · doi:10.1002/9781119245964 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
2. [2]
   A. LaPotin, et al.. Thermophotovoltaic efficiency of 40% (2022)

   Nature 604, 287–291 · doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04473-y · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
3. [3]
   P. T. Landsberg, G. Tonge. Thermodynamic energy conversion efficiencies (1980)

   Journal of Applied Physics 51, R1–R20 · doi:10.1063/1.328187 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
4. [4]
   W. Shockley, H. J. Queisser. Detailed balance limit of efficiency of p-n junction solar cells (1961)

   Journal of Applied Physics 32, 510–519 · doi:10.1063/1.1736034 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
5. [5]
   C. Kittel. Introduction to Solid State Physics (8th ed.) (2005)

   Wiley · book, no DOI · record
6. [6]
   M. A. Green, et al.. Solar cell efficiency tables (Version 63) (2024)

   Progress in Photovoltaics 32, 3–13 · doi:10.1002/pip.3750 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record