Temperature gradient → Electrical work

Matrix context

D = disequilibrium row · C = coupling family column. A cell reads the state of the atlas for that pair.

D.01 × C.06 · Temperature gradient × Thermomagneticfamily: ThermomagneticD.01 × C.13 · Temperature gradient × Electrostatic (variable capacitance)family: Electrostatic (variable capacitance)

Typed bounds on this route

Every limit the atlas holds for this route, as constraint records: reached through bounded_by claims on the route's own entities. Hard bounds (an upper bound or a formula) decide the thermodynamic-bound check above; benchmarks, constitutive relations and resource limits are listed and never decisive. No prose limit exists anywhere (pass 42).

• Carnot limit · formula-bound · hard, applies to this route
  η ≤ 1 − T_c/T_h for any heat engine between reservoirs at T_h and T_c

Steps

1. 01
   Temperature gradient —drives→ Thermomagnetic convectionestablishedclaim record

   thermal → kinetic · loss to thermal

   • a ferrofluid whose magnetisation decreases with temperature, in a non-uniform magnetic field aligned with the temperature gradient

   liquid · magnetic field required · temperature gradient required

   refs [1] [2]
2. 02
   Thermomagnetic convection —produces→ Fluid flowestablishedclaim record

   kinetic → kinetic

   The circulating flow carries a directed momentum flux that can load a blade: Zhou et al. 2009 drove a rotor with it (recorded as pathway:thermomagnetic-fluid-engine).

   refs [1] [3]
3. 03
   Fluid flow —drives→ Flow-induced vibrationestablishedclaim record

   kinetic → mechanical · loss to thermal

   • a bluff or flexible body in the produced stream at a Reynolds number where vortex shedding locks to a structural mode

   bulk flow required

   refs [4]
4. 04
   Flow-induced vibration —produces→ Mechanical vibrationestablishedclaim record

   mechanical → mechanical

   refs [4]
5. 05
   Mechanical vibration —drives→ Reverse electrowettingdemonstratedclaim record

   mechanical → electrical · loss to thermal

   • conductive droplets moved across a biased dielectric-coated electrode array

   liquid · electric field or bias required

   refs [5]
6. 06
   Reverse electrowetting —produces→ Charge carriersdemonstratedclaim record

   electrical → electrical

   refs [5]
7. 07
   Charge carriers —converts into→ Electrical workestablishedclaim record

   electrical → electrical · loss to thermal

   • carriers driven through an external load at the potential difference the source maintains

   refs [6]

Evidence for the complete composition · 0

No source on record for this exact composition. The sources below support the individual steps, not the route as a whole.

Evidence for the constituent relations · 6

1. [1]
   R. E. Rosensweig. Ferrohydrodynamics (1985)

   Cambridge University Press · book, no DOI · record
2. [2]
   S. A. Suslov. Peculiarities of Convective Heat and Mass Transfer in Magnetic Nanofluids (2023)

   ASME Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 145(3), 030801 (online December 2022) · doi:10.1115/1.4055343 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-20 · record
3. [3]
   L. Zhou et al.. A new miniaturized engine based on thermomagnetic effect of magnetic fluids (2009)

   Frontiers of Energy and Power Engineering in China 3, 160–166 · doi:10.1007/s11708-009-0018-9 · record
4. [4]
   H. B. Radousky, H. Liang. Energy harvesting: an integrated view of materials, devices and applications (2012)

   Nanotechnology 23, 502001 · doi:10.1088/0957-4484/23/50/502001 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
5. [5]
   T. Krupenkin, J. A. Taylor. Reverse electrowetting as a new approach to high-power energy harvesting (2011)

   Nature Communications 2, 448 · doi:10.1038/ncomms1454 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
6. [6]
   N. W. Ashcroft, N. D. Mermin. Solid State Physics (1976)

   Holt, Rinehart and Winston · book, no DOI · record