Physical Transformation AtlasPTA
Carrier · carrier:charge-carriers

Charge carriers

Mobile electronic charge carrying electrical energy. Their physical medium is specified by the producing/consuming claim; they may occur in a solid conductor or semiconductor, or in an ionised gas. Phase is not a property of this bookkeeping carrier.

energy form electricalalso: electrons, holes, mobile electronic charge carriers

Atlas record: 22 claims reference this carrier — 17 established, 3 demonstrated, 1 replicated and 1 theoretically predicted.

Explorerelations · routes · sources · cite

22claims282enumerated routes34routes with complete-composition evidence57candidate routes not searched27cited sources

Relations

produces · 21
Electrostatic induction (variable capacitance)—produces→Charge carriersestablished
Reverse electrowetting—produces→Charge carriersdemonstrated
Electromagnetic induction—produces→Charge carriersestablished
Magnetohydrodynamic generation—produces→Charge carriersestablished
Photon drag effect—produces→Charge carriersestablished
Acoustoelectric effect—produces→Charge carriersdemonstrated
Bulk photovoltaic effect—produces→Charge carriersestablished
Photoelectric effect—produces→Charge carriersestablished
Photon-enhanced thermionic emission—produces→Charge carriersdemonstrated
Antenna reception—produces→Charge carriersestablished
  • an oscillating current at the wave frequency
Rectification—produces→Charge carriersestablished
  • direct current out of the diode
Inverse spin Hall effect—produces→Charge carriersestablished
Hall effect—produces→Charge carriersestablished
Seebeck effect—produces→Charge carriersestablished
  • carriers diffuse from the hot end and accumulate at the cold end
Phonon drag—produces→Charge carriersestablished
Thermionic emission—produces→Charge carriersestablished
  • emitted electrons collected at the anode at a potential difference set by the work-function difference
Linear alternator action—produces→Charge carriersestablished
Nernst effect—produces→Charge carriersestablished
Anomalous Nernst effect—produces→Charge carriersreplicated
Rotating-machine generator action—produces→Charge carriersestablished
Thermoradiative effect—produces→Charge carrierstheoretically predicted
converts into · 1
Charge carriers—converts into→Electrical workestablished
  • carriers driven through an external load at the potential difference the source maintains

Enumerated routes through this · 282 (showing 24)

Cited sources · 27

  1. [1]
    N. W. Ashcroft, N. D. Mermin. Solid State Physics (1976)
    Holt, Rinehart and Winston · book, no DOI · record
  2. [2]
    S. Roundy, P. K. Wright, J. Rabaey. A study of low level vibrations as a power source for wireless sensor nodes (2003)
    Computer Communications 26, 1131–1144 · doi:10.1016/S0140-3664(02)00248-7 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
  3. [3]
    H. B. Radousky, H. Liang. Energy harvesting: an integrated view of materials, devices and applications (2012)
    Nanotechnology 23, 502001 · doi:10.1088/0957-4484/23/50/502001 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
  4. [4]
    T. Krupenkin, J. A. Taylor. Reverse electrowetting as a new approach to high-power energy harvesting (2011)
    Nature Communications 2, 448 · doi:10.1038/ncomms1454 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
  5. [5]
    M. Faraday. Experimental researches in electricity (1832)
    Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 122, 125–162 · doi:10.1098/rstl.1832.0006 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
  6. [6]
    L. D. Landau, E. M. Lifshitz, L. P. Pitaevskii. Electrodynamics of Continuous Media (Course of Theoretical Physics, Vol. 8, 2nd ed.) (1984)
    Pergamon · book, no DOI · record
  7. [7]
    R. J. Rosa. Physical principles of magnetohydrodynamic power generation (1961)
    Physics of Fluids 4, 182–194 · doi:10.1063/1.1724426 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
  8. [8]
    A. F. Gibson, M. F. Kimmitt, A. C. Walker. Photon drag in germanium (1970)
    Applied Physics Letters 17, 75-77 · doi:10.1063/1.1653315 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-20 · record
  9. [9]
    J. H. Strait et al.. Revisiting the Photon-Drag Effect in Metal Films (2019)
    Physical Review Letters 123, 053903 · doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.123.053903 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-20 · record
  10. [10]
    G. Weinreich, H. G. White. Observation of the Acoustoelectric Effect (1957)
    Physical Review 106, 1104-1106 · doi:10.1103/PhysRev.106.1104 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-20 · record
  11. [11]
    R. H. Parmenter. The Acousto-Electric Effect (1953)
    Physical Review 89, 990-998 · doi:10.1103/PhysRev.89.990 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-20 · record
  12. [12]
    V. M. Fridkin. Review of recent work on the bulk photovoltaic effect in ferro and piezoelectrics (1984)
    Ferroelectrics 53, 169–187 · doi:10.1080/00150198408245047 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
  13. [13]
    J. E. Spanier, et al.. Power conversion efficiency exceeding the Shockley–Queisser limit in a ferroelectric insulator (2016)
    Nature Photonics 10, 611–616 · doi:10.1038/nphoton.2016.143 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
  14. [14]
    C. Kittel. Introduction to Solid State Physics (8th ed.) (2005)
    Wiley · book, no DOI · record
  15. [15]
    J. W. Schwede, et al.. Photon-enhanced thermionic emission for solar concentrator systems (2010)
    Nature Materials 9, 762–767 · doi:10.1038/nmat2814 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
  16. [16]
    W. C. Brown. The history of power transmission by radio waves (1984)
    IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques 32, 1230–1242 · doi:10.1109/TMTT.1984.1132833 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
  17. [17]
    E. Saitoh et al.. Conversion of spin current into charge current at room temperature: Inverse spin-Hall effect (2006)
    Applied Physics Letters 88, 182509 · doi:10.1063/1.2199473 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
  18. [18]
    J. Sinova et al.. Spin Hall effects (2015)
    Reviews of Modern Physics 87, 1213 · doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.87.1213 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
  19. [19]
    E. H. Hall. On a new action of the magnet on electric currents (1879)
    American Journal of Mathematics 2, 287–292 · doi:10.2307/2369245 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
  20. [20]
    H. J. Goldsmid. Introduction to Thermoelectricity (2nd ed.) (2016)
    Springer Series in Materials Science 121 · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-49256-7 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
  21. [21]
    C. Herring. Theory of the thermoelectric power of semiconductors (1954)
    Physical Review 96, 1163 · doi:10.1103/PhysRev.96.1163 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
  22. [22]
    G. N. Hatsopoulos, E. P. Gyftopoulos. Thermionic Energy Conversion, Vol. 1: Processes and Devices (1973)
    MIT Press · book, no DOI · record
  23. [23]
    G. W. Swift. Thermoacoustic engines (1988)
    Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 84, 1145–1180 · doi:10.1121/1.396617 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
  24. [24]
    H. B. Callen. The application of Onsager's reciprocal relations to thermoelectric, thermomagnetic, and galvanomagnetic effects (1948)
    Physical Review 73, 1349 · doi:10.1103/PhysRev.73.1349 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
  25. [25]
    A. Sakai, et al.. Giant anomalous Nernst effect and quantum-critical scaling in a ferromagnetic semimetal (2018)
    Nature Physics 14, 1119–1124 · doi:10.1038/s41567-018-0225-6 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
  26. [26]
    G. E. W. Bauer, E. Saitoh, B. J. van Wees. Spin caloritronics (2012)
    Nature Materials 11, 391–399 · doi:10.1038/nmat3301 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
  27. [27]
    R. Strandberg. Theoretical efficiency limits for thermoradiative energy conversion (2015)
    Journal of Applied Physics 117, 055105 · doi:10.1063/1.4907392 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record

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