Wave-impact piezoelectric harvester

Matrix context

D = disequilibrium row · C = coupling family column. A cell reads the state of the atlas for that pair.

D.10 × C.24 · Bulk fluid flow × Turbomachineryfamily: TurbomachineryD.10 × C.10 · Bulk fluid flow × Piezoelectricfamily: Piezoelectric

Measured or reported performance

1. open-circuit voltage per pipeup to 1.28 Vlaboratory2026
   stacked PZT-5A discs struck by 70 g steel impact balls on rigid cement base tiles, double-disc configuration; simulated waves at 0.1–2 Hz, 3.5 % salinity
   refs [6]
2. power per wave event≈ 20 mWlaboratory2026
   same configuration; reported per wave event, not as a time average — one laboratory demonstration in a conference series; the atlas records it as demonstrated, not replicated
   refs [6]

Typed bounds on this route

Every limit the atlas holds for this route, as constraint records: reached through bounded_by claims on the route's own entities. Hard bounds (an upper bound or a formula) decide the thermodynamic-bound check above; benchmarks, constitutive relations and resource limits are listed and never decisive. No prose limit exists anywhere (pass 42).

• Electromechanical coupling factor · formula-bound · hard, applies to this route
  converted fraction per cycle ≤ k² = d²/(s·ε)

Steps

1. 01
   Bulk fluid flow —drives→ Ocean wave motionestablishedclaim record

   kinetic → mechanical · loss to thermal

   • wind fetch over open water

   liquid

   refs [1] [2]
2. 02
   Ocean wave motion —produces→ Pressure gradientestablishedclaim record

   mechanical → mechanical

   refs [1] [2]
3. 03
   Pressure gradient —drives→ Elastic deformationestablishedclaim record

   mechanical → mechanical

   • pressure acting on a diaphragm or shell

   solid

   refs [3]
4. 04
   Elastic deformation —produces→ Elastic stressestablishedclaim record

   mechanical → mechanical

   refs [3]
5. 05
   Elastic stress —drives→ Direct piezoelectric effectestablishedclaim record

   mechanical → electrical · loss to thermal

   • stress transmitted into a piezoelectric element

   solid · non-centrosymmetric crystal required

   refs [4]
6. 06
   Direct piezoelectric effect —produces→ Separated surface chargeestablishedclaim record

   electrical → electrical

   refs [3]
7. 07
   Separated surface charge —converts into→ Electrical workestablishedclaim record

   electrical → electrical · loss to thermal

   • electrodes on the charged surfaces connected through a load

   refs [5]

Evidence for the complete composition · 1

1. [6]
   I. Mozumder, S. C. Banik. Design and Experimental Validation of a Piezoelectric Impact-Based Energy Harvester for Low-Frequency Oceanic Waves (2026)

   SciEn Conference Series: Engineering 4, 684–687 · doi:10.38032/scse.2026.4.309 · record

Evidence for the constituent relations · 5

1. [1]
   S. H. Salter. Wave power (1974)

   Nature 249, 720–724 · doi:10.1038/249720a0 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
2. [2]
   J. Falnes. Ocean Waves and Oscillating Systems: Linear Interactions Including Wave-Energy Extraction (2002)

   Cambridge University Press · doi:10.1017/CBO9780511754630 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
3. [3]
   J. F. Nye. Physical Properties of Crystals: Their Representation by Tensors and Matrices (1985)

   Oxford University Press · book, no DOI · record
4. [4]
   A. Erturk, D. J. Inman. Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting (2011)

   Wiley · doi:10.1002/9781119991151 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record
5. [5]
   H. B. Radousky, H. Liang. Energy harvesting: an integrated view of materials, devices and applications (2012)

   Nanotechnology 23, 502001 · doi:10.1088/0957-4484/23/50/502001 · crossref ✓ 2026-09-19 · record